pdf	pdf.name	REF	Pages	Abstract
1	Aarssen1997.pdf	"Aarssen, L.W. 1997. On the Progress of Ecology. Oikos 80:177-178"	2	No Abstract
2	Abrams1993.pdf	"Abrams, P.A; Matsuda, H.; Harada, Y. 1993. Evolutionarily unstable fitness maxima and stable fitness minima of continuous traits. Evolutionary Ecology 7:465-487"	23	"We present models of adaptive change in continuous traits for the following situations: (1) adaptation of a single trait within a single population in which the fitness of a given individual depends on the population's mean trait value as well as its own trait value; (2) adaptation of two (or more) traits within a single population; (3) adaptation in two or more interacting species. We analyse a dynamic model of these adaptive scenarios in which the rate of change of the mean trait value is an increasing function of the fitness gradient (i.e. the rate of increase of individual fitness with the individual's trait value). Such models have been employed in evolutionary game theory and are often appropriate both for the evolution of quantitative genetic traits and for the behavioural adjustment of phenotypically plastic traits. The dynamics of the adaptation of several different ecologically important traits can result in characters that minimize individual fitness and can preclude evolution towards characters that maximize individual fitness. We discuss biological circumstances that are likely to produce such adaptive failures for situations involving foraging, predator avoidance, competition and coevolution. The results argue for greater attention to dynamical stability in models of the evolution of continuous traits."
3	Abrams1984b.pdf	"Abrams, P.A. 1984. Foraging time optimization and interactions in food webs. American Naturalist 124:80"	1	"The consequences of foraging time optimization by one species in a food web on interactions in the food web are investigated using several simple mathematical models. The situation modeled is one in which a forager must expose itself to a greater risk of predation while foraging, and it adjusts foraging time adaptively to maximize fitness. In this system the forager's behavior results in a number of indirect effects between species: it causes interactions between the forager's predator and the forager's food; it causes predator self-limitation; and it may cause interactions between different food species. Some simple models are used to show that these trophically mediated indirect effects theoretically can be comparable to or larger in magnitude than the direct interactions between adjacent trophic levels. The possibility of such indirect effects has important implications for theoretical and empirical studies of food webs."
4	Adler2007.pdf	"Adler, P.B.; HilleRislambers, J.; Levine, J.M. 2007. A niche for neutrality. Ecology Letters 10:95-104"	10	"Ecologists now recognize that controversy over the relative importance of niches and neutrality cannot be resolved by analyzing species abundance patterns. Here, we use classical coexistence theory to reframe the debate in terms of stabilizing mechanisms (niches) and fitness equivalence (neutrality). The neutral model is a special case where stabilizing mechanisms are absent and species have equivalent fitness. Instead of asking whether niches or neutral processes structure communities, we advocate determining the degree to which observed diversity reflects strong stabilizing mechanisms overcoming large fitness differences or weak stabilization operating on species of similar fitness. To answer this question, we propose combining data on per capita growth rates with models to: (i) quantify the strength of stabilizing processes; (ii) quantify fitness inequality and compare it with stabilization; and (iii) manipulate frequency dependence in growth to test the consequences of stabilization and fitness equivalence for coexistence."
5	Agrawal2001.pdf	"Agrawal, A.A. 2001. Phenotypic plasticity in the interactions and evolution of species. Science 294:321-326"	6	"When individuals of two species interact, they can adjust their phenotypes in response to their respective partner, be they antagonists or mutualists. The reciprocal phenotypic change between individuals of interacting species can reflect an evolutionary response to spatial and temporal variation in species interactions and ecologically result in the structuring of food chains. The evolution of adaptive phenotypic plasticity has led to the success of organisms in novel habitats, and potentially contributes to genetic differentiation and speciation. Taken together, phenotypic responses in species interactions represent modifications that can lead to reciprocal change in ecological time, altered community patterns, and expanded evolutionary potential of species."
6	Allen1993.pdf	"Allen, J.C.; Schaffer, W.M.; Rosko, D. 1993. Chaos reduces species extinction by amplifying local population noise. Nature 364:229-232"	4	"In the mid-1970s, theoretical ecologists were responsible for stimulating interest in nonlinear dynamics and chaos. Ironically, the importance of chaos in ecology itself remains controversial. Proponents of ecological chaos point to its ubiquity in mathematical models and to various empirical findings. Sceptics maintain that the models are unrealistic and that the experimental evidence is equally consistent with stochastic models. More generally, it has been argued that interdemic selection and/or enhanced rates of species extinction will eliminate populations and species that evolve into chaotic regions of parameter space. Fundamental to this opinion is the belief that violent oscillations and low minimum population densities are inevitable correlates of the chaotic state. In fact, rarity is not a necessary consequence of complex dynamical behaviour. But even when chaos is associated with frequent rarity, its consequences to survival are necessarily deleterious only in the case of species composed of a single population. Of course, the majority of real world species (for example, most insects) consist of multiple populations weakly coupled by migration, and in this circumstance chaos can actually reduce the probability of extinction. Here we show that although low densities lead to more frequent extinction at the local level, the decorrelating effect of chaotic oscillations reduces the degree of synchrony among populations and thus the likelihood that all are simultaneously extinguished."
7	Altizer2013.pdf	"Altizer, S. et al. 2013. Climate change and infectious diseases: from evidence to a predictive framework. Science 341:514-519"	6	"Scientists have long predicted large-scale responses of infectious diseases to climate change, giving rise to a polarizing debate, especially concerning human pathogens for which socioeconomic drivers and control measures can limit the detection of climate-mediated changes. Climate change has already increased the occurrence of diseases in some natural and agricultural systems, but in many cases, outcomes depend on the form of climate change and details of the host-pathogen system. In this review, we highlight research progress and gaps that have emerged during the past decade and develop a predictive framework that integrates knowledge from ecophysiology and community ecology with modeling approaches. Future work must continue to anticipate and monitor pathogen biodiversity and disease trends in natural ecosystems and identify opportunities to mitigate the impacts of climate-driven disease emergence."
8	Altmann1974.pdf	"Altmann, J. 1974. Observational Study of Behavior: Sampling Methods. Behaviour 49:227-266"	40	"Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: State or Event Sampling Method Sampling Recommended Uses 1. Ad Libitum (p. 235) either Primarily of heuristic value; suggestive; records of rare but significant events. 2. Sociometric Matrix Completion (p. 240) event Asymmetry within dyads. 3. Focal-Animal (p. 242) either Sequential constraints; percent of time; rates; durations; nearest neighbor relationships. 4. All Occurrences of Some Behaviors (p. 247) usually event Synchrony; rates. 5. Sequence (p. 248) either Sequential constraints. 6. One-Zero (p. 251) usually state None. 7. Instantaneous and Scan (p. 258) state Percent of time; synchrony; subgroups. In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time."
9	Anderson2000.pdf	"Anderson, D.R.; Burnham, K.P.; Thompson, W.L. 2000. Null hypothesis testing: Problems, prevalence, and an alternative. Journal of Wildlife Management 64:912-923"	12	"This paper presents a review and critique of statistical null hypothesis testing in ecological studies in general, and wildlife studies in particular, and describes an alternative. Our review of Ecology and the journal of Wildlife Management found the use of null hypothesis testing to be pervasive. The estimated number of P-values appearing within articles of Ecology exceeded 8,000 in 1991 and has exceeded 3,000 in each year since 1984, whereas the estimated number of P-values in the Journal of Wildlife Management exceeded 8,000 in 1997 and has exceeded 3,000 in each year since 1991. We estimated that 47% (SE = 3.9%) of the P-values in the Journal of Wildlife;fe Management lacked estimates of means or effect sizes or even the sign of the difference in means or other parameters. We find that null hypothesis testing is uninformative when no estimates of means or effect size and their precision are given. Contrary to common dogma, tests of statistical null hypotheses have relatively little utility in science and are not a fundamental aspect of the scientific method. We recommend their use be reduced in favor of more informative approaches. Towards this objective, we describe a relatively new paradigm of data analysis based on Kullback-Leibler information. This paradigm is an extension of likelihood theory and, when used correctly, avoids many of the fundamental limitations and common misuses of null hypothesis testing. Information-theoretic methods focus on providing a strength of evidence for an a priori set of alternative hypotheses, rather than a statistical test of a null hypothesis. This paradigm allows the following types of evidence for the alternative hypotheses: the rank of each hypothesis, expressed as a model; an estimate of the formal likelihood of each model, given the data; a measure of precision that incorporates model selection uncertainty; and simple methods to allow the use of the set of alternative models in making formal inference. We provide an example of the information-theoretic approach using data on the effect of lead on survival in spectacled elder ducks (Somateria fischeri). Regardless of the analysis paradigm used, we strongly recommend inferences based on a priori considerations be clearly separated from those resulting from some form of data dredging."
10	Anderson2011.pdf	"Anderson, M.J. et al. 2011. Navigating the multiple meanings of BETA diversity: a roadmap for the practicing ecologist. Ecology Letters 14:19-28"	10	"A recent increase in studies of �_ diversity has yielded a confusing array of concepts, measures and methods. Here, we provide a roadmap of the most widely used and ecologically relevant approaches for analysis through a series of mission statements. We distinguish two types of �_ diversity: directional turnover along a gradient vs. non-directional variation. Different measures emphasize different properties of ecological data. Such properties include the degree of emphasis on presence/absence vs. relative abundance information and the inclusion vs. exclusion of joint absences. Judicious use of multiple measures in concert can uncover the underlying nature of patterns in �_ diversity for a given dataset. A case study of Indonesian coral assemblages shows the utility of a multi-faceted approach. We advocate careful consideration of relevant questions, matched by appropriate analyses. The rigorous application of null models will also help to reveal potential processes driving observed patterns in �_ diversity."
11	Anderson1978.pdf	"Anderson, R.M; May, R.M. 1978. Regulation and Stability of Host-Parasite Population Interactions. Journal of Animal Ecology 47:219-247"	29	"(1) Several models describing the dynamics of host-parasite associations are discussed. (2) The models contain the central assumption that the parasite increases the rate of host mortalities. The parasite induced changes in this rate are formulated as functions of the parasite numbers per host and hence of the statistical distribution of the parasites within the host population. (3) The parameters influencing the ability of the parasite to regulate the growth of its host's population, and the stability of parasite induced equilibria, are examined for each model. (4) Three specific categories of population processes are shown to be of particular significance in stabilizing the dynamical behaviour of host-parasite interactions and enhancing the regulatory role of the parasite. These categories are overdispersion of parasite numbers per host, nonlinear functional relationships between parasite burden per host and host death rate, and density depen- dent constraints on parasite population growth within individual hosts. "
12	Anderson1979.pdf	"Anderson, R.M; May, R.M. 1979. Population biology of infectious diseases: Part I. Nature 280:361-367"	7	No Abstract
13	Anderson1980.pdf	"Anderson, R.M; May, R.M. 1980. Infectious Diseases and Population Cycles of Forest Insects. Science 210:658-661"	4	"The regulation of natural populations of invertebrate hosts by viral, bacterial, protozoan, or helminith infections is discussed, using models that combine elements of conventional epidemiology (where the host population is assumed constant) with dynamic elements drawn from predator-prey studies; the apparent absence of acquired immunity in invertebrates simplifies the analysis. Highly pathogenic infections, with long-lived infective stages, tend to produce cyclic behavior in their host populations. The models give an explanation of the 9- to 10-year population cycles of the larch bud moth (Zeiraphera diniana) in the European Alps and suggest that microsporidian protozoan and baculovirus infections may be responsible for the 5- to 12-year population cycles observed in many temperate forest insects."
14	Anderson1981.pdf	"Anderson, R.M; May, R.M. 1981. The Population Dynamics of Microparasites and Their Invertebrate Hosts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 291:451-524."	74	No Abstract
15	Andren1994.pdf	"Andren, H. 1994. Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Birds and Mammals in Landscapes with Different Proportions of Suitable Habitat: A Review. Oikos 71:355-366"	12	"Habitat fragmentation implies a loss of habitat, reduced patch size and an increasing distance between patches, but also an increase of new habitat. Simulations of patterns and geometry of landscapes with decreasing proportion of the suitable habitat give rise to the prediction that the effect of habitat fragmentation on e.g. population size of a species would be primarily through habitat loss in landscape with a high proportion of suitable habitat. However, as the proportion of suitable habitat decreases in the landscape, area and isolation effects start influencing the population size of the species. Hence, the relative importance of pure habitat loss, patch size and isolation are expected to differ at different degrees of habitat fragmentation. This conclusion was supported by a review of studies on birds and mammals in habitat patches in landscapes with different proportions of suitable habitat: the random sample hypothesis was a good predictor of the effects of habitat fragmentation in landscapes with more than 30% of suitable habitat. In these landscapes, habitat fragmentation is primarily habitat loss. However, in landscapes with highly fragmented habitat, patch size and isolation will complement the effect of habitat loss and the loss of species or decline in population size will be greater than expected from habitat loss alone. Habitat patches are parts of the landscape mosaic and the presence of a species in a patch may be a function not only of patch size and isolation, but also of the neighbouring habitat Habitat generalists may survive in very small patches because they can also utilize resources in the surroundings. Furthermore, the total species diversity across habitats in a given landscape may increase when new patches of habitat are created within the continuous habitat, since new species may be found in these new habitats, even if they are human-made."
16	Armstrong1980.pdf	"Armstrong, R.A.; McGehee, R. 1980. Competitive exclusion. American naturalist 115:151-170"	20	"Recent developments in the mathematical theory of competitive exclusion are discussed and placed in historical perspective. The models which have been used in theoretical investigations of competitive exclusion are classified into two groups: those in which the resources regenerate according to an algebraic relationship (abiotic resource models), and those in which resource regeneration is governed by differential equations (biotic resource models). We then propose a mathematical framework for considering problems of competitive exclusion, and provide examples in which n competitors can coexist on k < n resources (both biotic and abiotic). These systems persist because of internally generated cyclic behavior. We conclude that the competitive exclusion principle applies in general only to coexistence at fixed densities."
17	Attsat1976.pdf	"Atsatt, P.R.; O'Dowd, D.J. 1976. Plant Defense Guilds. Science 193:24-29"	6	Many plants are functionally interdependent with respect to their herbivores.
18	Axelrod1981.pdf	"Axelrod, R.; Hamilton, W. D. 1981. The Evolution of Cooperation. Science 211:1390-1396"	7	"Cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates, has been a difficulty for evolutionary theory since Darwin. On the assumption that interactions between pairs of individuals occur on a probabilistic basis, a model is developed based on the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy in the context of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Deductions from the model, and the results of a computer tournament show how cooperation based on reciprocity can get started in an asocial world, can thrive while interacting with a wide range of other strategies, and can resist invasion once fully established. Potential applications include specific aspects of territoriality, mating, and disease."
19	Baer1999.pdf	"Baer, B.; Schmid-Hempel P. 1999. Experimental variation in polyandry affects parasite loads and fitness in a bumble bee. Nature 397:151-154"	4	"In many species of animals, females typically mate with more than one male (polyandry). Some social insects carry this behaviour to extremes1. For example, honeybee queens mate with ten to twenty (or even more) males on their nuptial flights2. The reasons for this behaviour remain unknown, given the obvious costs of time, energy and exposure to predation. Several potential benefits of polyandry have been proposed1,3,3,4, but none are well supported yet. Here we test the hypothesis that genetic diversity among a female's offspring may offer some protection from parasitism5, 6, 7. We artificially inseminated queens of a bumble-bee (Bombus terrestris L.) with sperm of either low or high genetic diversity. The resulting colonies were exposed to parasitism under field conditions. High-diversity colonies had fewer parasites and showed greater reproductive success, on average, than did low-diversity colonies. We suggest that female mating frequency may be influenced in part by parasites."
20	Bak1993.pdf	"Bak, P.; Sneppen, K. 1993. Punctuated equilibrium and criticality in a simple model of evolution. Physical Review Letters 7:4083-4086"	4	"A simple and robust model of biological evolution of an ecology of interacting species is introduced. The model self-organizes into a critical steady state with intermittent coevolutionary avalanches of all sizes; i.e., it exhibits ��punctuated equilibrium�� behavior. This collaborative evolution is much faster than non-cooperative scenarios since no large and coordinated, and hence prohibitively unlikely, mutations are involved."
21	Barrangou2007.pdf	"Barrangou, R. et al. 2007. CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes. Science 315:1709-1712"	4	"Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) are a distinctive feature of the genomes of most Bacteria and Archaea and are thought to be involved in resistance to bacteriophages. We found that, after viral challenge, bacteria integrated new spacers derived from phage genomic sequences. Removal or addition of particular spacers modified the phage-resistance phenotype of the cell. Thus, CRISPR, together with associated cas genes, provided resistance against phages, and resistance specificity is determined by spacer-phage sequence similarity."
22	Barton1985.pdf	"Barton, N.H.; Hewitt, G.M. 1985. Analysis of hybrid zones. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 16:113-148"	36	"hybrid zones, trension zones, clines, gene flow, introgression, reproductive isolation, secondary contact zone"
23	Bateman1948.pdf	"Bateman, A.J. 1948. Intra sexual selection in Drosophila. Heredity 2:349-368"	20	"1. The evidence on intra-sexual selection has so far indicated that it acts mainly in males, but it has given no adequate explanation why this should be so. 2. Experiments with Drosophila melanogaster using multiple matings in which each fly carries a different dominant marker, show that the contribution of males to the next generation is more variable than that of females. 3. This sex difference is independent of environmental and heritable effects. Males must therefore be inherently subject to stronger selection than females, which must be due to a more intense intra-sexual action. 4. The intensity of intra-masculine selection is due to the greater dependence of the fertility of males on frequency of insemination. This seems to be inherent in primary sexual differentiation in both animals and plants. 5. Undiscriminating eagerness in males and discriminating passivity in females must have been early effects of intra-masculine selection and are naturally widespread. Previous experiments on sexual isolation in Drosophila can be interpreted on the assumption that females (not males) exercise discrimination. 6. Intra-masculine selection and related effects may have influenced the evolution of animals and plants in various ways."
24	Beaumont2010.pdf	"Beaumont, M.A. 2010. Approximate Bayesian Computation in Evolution and Ecology. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 41:379-406"	28	"In the past 10years a statistical technique, approximate Bayesian computation (ABC), has been developed that can be used to infer parameters and choose between models in the complicated scenarios that are often considered in the environmental sciences. For example, based on gene sequence and microsatellite data, the method has been used to choose between competing models of human demographic history as well as to infer growth rates, times of divergence, and other parameters. The method fits naturally in the Bayesian inferential framework, and a brief overview is given of the key concepts. Three main approaches to ABC have been developed, and these are described and compared. Although the method arose in population genetics, ABC is increasingly used in other fields, including epidemiology, systems biology, ecology, and agent-based modeling, and many of these applications are briefly described."
25	Begon1999.pdf	"Begon, M. et al. 1999. Transmission dynamics of a zoonotic pathogen within and between wildlife host species. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 266:1939-1945"	7	"The transmission dynamics of the cowpox virus infection have been quantified in two mixed populations of bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus), through analyses of detailed time-series of the numbers of susceptible, infectious and newly infected individuals. The cowpox virus is a zoonosis which circulates in these rodent hosts and has been shown to have an adverse effect on reproductive output. The transmission dynamics within species is best described as frequency dependent rather than density dependent, contrary to the 'mass action' assumption of most previous studies, both theoretical and empirical. Estimation of a transmission coefficient for each species in each population also allows annual and seasonal variations in transmission dynamics to be investigated through an analysis of regression residuals. Transmission between host species is found to be negligible despite their close cohabitation. The consequences of this for the combining ability of hosts as zoonotic reservoirs, and for apparent competition between hosts, are discussed."
26	Bell2008.pdf	"Bell, G.; Collins, S. 2008. Adaptation, extinction and global change. Evolutionary Applications 1:42430"	1	"We discuss three interlinked issues: the natural pace of environmental change and adaptation, the likelihood that a population will adapt to a potentially lethal change, and adaptation to elevated CO2, the prime mover of global change. 1. Environmental variability is governed by power laws showing that ln differ- ence in conditions increases with ln elapsed time at a rate of 0.3-0.4. This leads to strong but fluctuating selection in many natural populations. 2. The effect of repeated adverse change on mean fitness depends on its fre- quency rather than its severity. If the depression of mean fitness leads to population decline, however, severe stress may cause extinction. Evolu- tionary rescue from extinction requires abundant genetic variation or a high mutation supply rate, and thus a large population size. Although natural populations can sustain quite intense selection, they often fail to adapt to anthropogenic stresses such as pollution and acidification and instead become extinct. 3. Experimental selection lines of algae show no specific adaptation to ele- vated CO2, but instead lose their carbon-concentrating mechanism through mutational degradation. This is likely to reduce the effectiveness of the oceanic carbon pump. Elevated CO2 is also likely to lead to changes in phytoplankton community composition, although it is not yet clear what these will be. We emphasize the importance of experimental evolution in understanding and predicting the biological response to global change. This will be one of the main tasks of evolutionary biologists in the coming decade."
27	Belovsky1997.pdf	"Belovsky, G.E. 1997. Optimal foraging and community structure: The allometry of herbivore food selection and competition. Evolutionary Ecology 11:641-672"	32	"I address the selection of plants with different characteristics by herbivores of different body sizes by incorporating allometric relationships for herbivore foraging into optimal foraging models developed for herbivores. Herbivores may use two criteria in maximizing their nutritional intake when confronted with a range of food resources: a minimum digestibility and a minimum cropping rate. Minimum digestibility should depend on plant chemical characteristics and minimum cropping rate should depend on the density of plant items and their size (mass). If herbivores do select for these plant characteristics, then herbivores of different body sizes should select different ranges of these characteristics due to allometric relationships in digestive physiology, cropping ability and nutritional demands. This selectivity follows a regular pattern such that a herbivore of each body size can exclusively utilize some plants, while it must share other plants with herbivores of other body sizes. I empirically test this hypothesis of herbivore diet selectivity and the pattern of resource use that it produces in the field and experimentally. The findings have important implications for competition among herbivores and their population and community ecology. Furthermore, the results may have general appli- cability to other types of foragers, with general implications for how biodiversity is influenced."
28	Berenbaum2002.pdf	"Berenbaum, M.R. 2002. Postgenomic chemical ecology: from genetic code to ecological interactions. Journal of chemical ecology 28:873-896"	24	"Environmental response genes are defined as those encoding proteins involved in interactions external to the organism, including interactions among organisms and between the organism and its abiotic environment. The general characteristics of environmental response genes include high diversity, proliferation by duplication events, rapid rates of evolution, and tissue- or temporal-specific expression. Thus, environmental response genes include those that encode proteins involved in the manufacture, binding, transport, and breakdown of semiochemicals. Postgenomic elucidation of the function of such genes requires an understanding of the chemical ecology of the organism and, in particular, of the ""small molecules"" that act as selective agents either by promoting survival or causing selective mortality. In this overview, the significance of several groups of environmental response genes is examined in the context of chemical ecology. Cytochrome P-450 monooxygenases provide a case in point; these enzymes are involved in the biosynthesis of furanocoumarins (furocoumarins), toxic allelochemicals, in plants, as well as in their detoxification by lepidopterans. Biochemical innovations in insects and plants have historically been broadly defined in a coevolutionary context. Considerable insight can be gained by defining with greater precision components of those broad traits that contribute to diversification. Molecular approaches now allow chemical ecologists to characterize specifically those biochemical innovations postulated to lead to adaptation and diversification in plant/insect interactions."
29	Bertness1994.pdf	Bertness; C. 1994. Positive interactions in communities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9:191-193	3	"Current concepts of the role of interspecific interactions in communities have been shaped by a profusion of experimental studies of interspecific competition over the past few decades. Evidence for the importance of positive interactions - facilitations - in community organization and dynamics has accrued to the point where it warrants formal inclusion into community ecology theory, as it has been in evolutionary biology."
30	Bloom85.pdf	"Bloom, A.J.; Chapin, F.S.; Mooney H.A. 1985. Resource limitation in plants- An economic analogy. Annual review of ecology and systematics 16:363-392"	30	"Plant allocation can be related to economic theory whereby plants try to increase fitness as a business would increase profit. Thus plants allocate resources for the maximum possible return (i.e. nutrient acquisition), and store resources when they are most available. Plants attempt to allocate so that all resources are equally limiting and each resource has approximately equal value to the plant (similar exchange ratios)."
31	Boero1994.pdf	"Boero, F. 1994. Fluctuations and variation in coastal marine environments. P.S.Z.N.I: Marine Ecology 15:45717"	1	"The manifold aspects of variability of coastal marine ecosystems are reviewed, with special reference to the response of species and communities. Fluctuations are defined as recurrent modifications in community structure, for instance due to seasonality, whereas variations are defined as changes permanently leading from a given community to a different one. Both patterns are described and linked to the interaction between life history traits and environmental factors. Resting stages are proposed to play a still underestimated role in the dynamics of coastal communities, especially for plankton. Rare species are considered as an essential constant of communities, being the source of potential variation and alternance in the contribution to the standing biomass. Problem fluctuations vs. variations At all latitudes, coastal marine environments are subjected to a certain degree of seasonal fluctuation, affecting biotas (see PBRBs, 1971, for a review). Polar regions are characterized by alternance of ice formation with almost continuous absence of sunlight, and ice melting with almost continuous sunlight. Tempera-ture and rainfall are the main controlling factors at temperate regions, with cold and wet seasons alternating with warm and dry ones. Tropical regions have almost constant temperatures and solar radiation, but rainfalls are seasonal, with alternance of wet and dry seasons; this causes different,conditions of turbidity and nutrient input in coastal waters (e. g., MCCLANAHAN, 1988). Being mediated by the stabilizing properties of water, such seasonal fluctuations are less severe than on land, but are nonetheless strong enough to cause a sharp alternance of different chemico-physical conditions, thus affecting the biological features of coastal environments (see GLOVER, 1979, for a review). The organ-isms inhabiting such environments can be ascribed to two main groups: (a) Ierennial species, active throughout the year; (b) seasonal species, active only uring favourable periods."
32	Boero1996.PDF	"Boero, F. 1996. Episodic events: their relevance to ecology and evolution. Marine Ecology 17:237-250"	14	"An episodic event can be one of the many  episodes  forming a normal flow of related events. But it can also be an incident interrupting a trend and initiating a new one. Appreciation of contrasting meanings of apparently identical categories of phenomena is familiar to evolutionary biologists who, for instance, envisage evolution as the result of both gradual and punctuated events. Seasonal plankton blooms (both normal and noxious), species outbreaks, mass mortalities, and human predation are taken as examples of episodes that can influence and/or modify what we perceive as normality. Recruitment is another example of an episodic event heavily conditioning both community structure and function, as recently highlighted by the so-called supply-side ecology. The reductionistic study of ecology. more linked to thermodynamics than to history, allowed the formulation of general ecological laws which, however, stem from the laws of thermodynamics. The totalizing value of such laws blurs appreciation of heterogeneity and change, so that many ecologists tend to be rather conservative, using a concept like conservation  as an absolute paradigm to follow and to consider  change  as an a priori negative phenomenon. Episodes can have a conservative or innovative meaning, and are the driving force of the history of life. Their importance is recognized mainly when dealing with the history of organisms (evolutionary biology), whereas the assemblages of organisms (i.e., communities) are too often described and interpreted in an ahistorical context or in a too narrow time frame. Recognition of the importance of history in ecology (evolutionary ecology) can lead to a better understanding of environmental dynamics, albeit restricting the supposed predictive strength of ecology, a science timely integrating the reductionistic-thermodynamic approach with the holistic-historical one."
33	Boero2010.pdf	"Boero, F. 2010. The study of species in the era of biodiversity: A tale of stupidity. Diversity 2:115-126"	12	"Research policies ensuing from the Convention on Biological Diversity made huge funds available to study biodiversity. These were mostly dedicated to projects aimed at providing services to taxonomy via information and technology, or to develop �modern�, i.e., molecular, approaches to taxonomy. Traditional taxonomy was overly neglected and is in serious distress all over the world. It is argued that both novel and traditional ways to study biodiversity are essential and that the demise of traditional taxonomy (based on phenotypes) in the era of biodiversity is the result of an unwise policy, mainly fostered by portions of the scientific community that aim at taking total advantage of the funds dedicated to the study of biodiversity."
34	Boero1996a.pdf	"Boero, F. et al. 1996. The continuity of living matter and the discontinuities of its constituents: Do plankton and benthos really exist? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:177-180"	4	"Plankton and benthos are popular concepts identifying two ways of life of aquatic organisms. Their spatial separation led to the development of different sampling techniques and to separate conceptualizations of the principles governing these subsets of the aquatic environment. Reciprocal connections between plankton and benthos, however, are very strong both from a functional (energy fluxes) and a structural (life cycle dynamics) point of view. A full appreciation of such links is forcing marine ecology towards a more integrated approach."
35	Boero2004.pdf	"Boero, F. et al. 2004. From biodiversity and ecosystem functioning to the roots of ecological complexity. Ecological Complexity 1:101-109"	9	"Biodiversity is monophyletic: life started with a single species. Biodiversity evolved, becoming more and more complex, by a process that went through many patterns of diversification and that is still running. Biodiversity is not teleological, it did not evolve at the present stage to make a proper world for us, or to make ecosystems function; ecosystems functioned also at the dawn of life, when diversity was very low. Ecology and evolution are strictly linked, and both are historical disciplines that involve non-linear systems with a clear chaotic development, with the co-existence of strong constraints (in both form and function) and powerful contingencies (like those that caused the mass extinctions of the past). Historical predictions can only be weak, and can be formulated only when trends are identified (i.e. the attractors of chaotic systems). Modern ecology discarded natural history, setting quantitative goals that forced it to remove quality from its vision of complexity. This attitude led to enormous conceptual advances that are starting to show their limits. The identification of trends, set by constraints/attractors, and of deviations from them, due to contingencies, is an ambitious and practicable goal for mature ecology."
36	Boero2015.pdf	"Boero, F.; Kraberg, a. C.; Krause, G.; Wiltshire, K. H. 2015. Time is an affliction: Why ecology cannot be as predictive as physics and why it needs time series. Journal of Sea Research 101:43435"	1	"Ecological systems depend on both constraints and historical contingencies, both of which shape their present observable system state. In contrast to ahistorical systems, which are governed solely by constraints (i.e. laws), historical systems and their dynamics can be understood only if properly described, in the course of time. Describing these dynamics and understanding long-term variability can be seen as the mission of long time series measuring not only simple abiotic features but also complex biological variables, such as species diversity and abundances, allowing deep insights in the functioning of food webs and ecosystems in general. Long time-series are irreplaceable for understanding change, and crucially inherent system variability and thus envisaging future scenarios. This notwithstanding current policies in funding and evaluating scientific research discourage the maintenance of long term series, despite a clear need for long-term strategies to cope with climate change. Time series are crucial for a pursuit of the much invoked Ecosystem Approach and to the passage from simple monitoring programs of large-scale and long-term Earth observatories - thus promoting a better understanding of the causes and effects of change in ecosystems. The few ongoing long time series in European waters must be integrated and networked so as to facilitate the formation of nodes of a series of observatories which, together, should allow the long-term management of the features and characteristics of European waters. Human capacity building in this region of expertise and a stronger societal involvement are also urgently needed, since the expertise in recognizing and describing species and therefore recording them reliably in the context of time series is rapidly vanishing from the European Scientific community. "
37	Boero2008.pdf	"Boero, F.et al. 2008. Gelatinous plankton: Irregularities rule the world. Marine Ecology Progress Series 356:299-310"	12	"In spite of being one of the most relevant components of the biosphere, the plank- ton-benthos network is still poorly studied as such. This is partly due to the irregular occurrence of driving phenomena such as gelatinous plankton pulses in this realm. Gelatinous plankters rely on their life cycles and histories to exploit temporarily abundant resources with an undeniable, but often overlooked, impact on marine food webs. Dramatic increases of gelatinous filter-feeders and/or carnivores (both native and nonindigenous species) are frequently observed, and explanations of these blooms alternatively invoke ecosystem variability, climate change, unspecified anthropogenic perturbation or removal of top predators from trophic networks. Gelatinous plankters, however, are not anomalies in plankton dynamics: the recognition of the ecological importance of their pulses, based on their life cycle patterns (often involving benthic stages), is a critical breakthrough to understand the cycling diversity of plankton in space and time. The current study focuses on the many neglected aspects of the ecology and biology of gelatinous zooplankton, describes how life cycle patterns are central in marine ecology, as are the pulses of gelatinous organisms, and highlights how such a dramatic lack of knowledge can affect our understanding of the marine ecosystem as a whole."
38	Bolker2009.pdf	"Bolker, B. et al. 2009. Generalized linear mixed models: a practical guide for ecology and evolution. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24:127-135"	9	"How should ecologists and evolutionary biologists analyze nonnormal data that involve random effects? Nonnormal data such as counts or proportions often defy classical statistical procedures. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) provide a more flexible approach for analyzing nonnormal data when random effects are present. The explosion of research on GLMMs in the last decade has generated considerable uncertainty for practitioners in ecology and evolution. Despite the availability of accurate techniques for estimating GLMM parameters in simple cases, complex GLMMs are challenging to fit and statistical inference such as hypothesis testing remains difficult. We review the use (and misuse) of GLMMs in ecology and evolution, discuss estimation and inference and summarize 'best-practice' data analysis procedures for scientists facing this challenge. "
39	Bolnick2003.pdf	"Bolnick, D. et al. 2003. The ecology of individuals: incidence and implications of individual specialization. American Naturalist 161:46753"	1	"Most empirical and theoretical studies of resource use and population dynamics treat conspecific individuals as ecologically equivalent. This simplification is only justified if interindividual niche variation is rare, weak, or has a trivial effect on ecological processes. This article reviews the incidence, degree, causes, and implications of individual-level niche variation to challenge these simplifications. Evidence for individual specialization is available for 93 species distributed across a broad range of taxonomic groups. Although few studies have quantified the degree to which individuals are specialized relative to their population, between-individual variation can sometimes comprise the majority of the population's niche width. The degree of individual specialization varies widely among species and among populations, reflecting a diverse array of physiological, behavioral, and ecological mechanisms that can generate intrapopulation variation. Finally, individual specialization has potentially important ecological, evolutionary, and conservation implications. Theory suggests that niche variation facilitates frequency-dependent interactions that can profoundly affect the population's stability, the amount of intraspecific competition, fitness-function shapes, and the population's capacity to diversify and speciate rapidly. Our collection of case studies suggests that individual specialization is a widespread but underappreciated phenomenon that poses many important but unanswered questions."
40	Borcard2002.pdf	"Borcard, D.; Legendre, P. 2002. All-scale spatial analysis of ecological data by means of principal coordinates of neighbour matrices. Ecological Modelling 153:51-68"	18	"Spatial heterogeneity of ecological structures originates either from the physical forcing of environmental variables or from community processes. In both cases, spatial structuring plays a functional role in ecosystems. Ecological models should explicitly take into account the spatial structure of ecosystems. In previous work, we used a polynomial function of the geographic coordinates of the sampling sites to model broad-scale spatial variation in a canonical (regression-type) modelling context. In this paper, we propose a method for detecting and quantifying spatial patterns over a wide range of scales. This is obtained by eigenvalue decomposition of a truncated matrix of geographic distances among the sampling sites. The eigenvectors corresponding to positive eigenvalues are used as spatial descriptors in regression or canonical analysis. This method can be applied to any set of sites providing a good coverage of the geographic sampling area. This paper investigates the behaviour of the method using numerical simulations and an artificial pseudo-ecological data set of known properties."
41	Bronstein1994.pdf	"Bronstein, Judith L. 1994. Conditional outcomes in mutualistic interactions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 9:214-217"	4	"Interspecific interactions are traditionally displayed in a grid in which each interaction is placed according to its outcome (positive, negative or neutral) for each partner. However, recent field studies consistently find the costs and benefits that determine net effects to vary greatly in both space and time, inevitably causing outcomes within most interactions to vary as well. Interactions show 'conditionality' when costs and benefits, and thus outcomes, are affected in predictable ways by current ecological conditions. The full range of natural outcomes of a given association may reveal far more about its ecological and evolutionary dynamics than does the average outcome at a given place and time."
42	Brook2008.pdf	"Brook, B.W.; Sodhi, N.S.; Bradshaw, C.J.A. 2008. Synergies among extinction drivers under global change. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23:453-460"	8	"If habitat destruction or overexploitation of populations is severe, species loss can occur directly and abruptly. Yet the final descent to extinction is often driven by synergistic processes (amplifying feedbacks) that can be disconnected from the original cause of decline. We review recent observational, experimental and meta-analytic work which together show that owing to interacting and self-reinforcing processes, estimates of extinction risk for most species are more severe than previously recognised. As such, conservation actions which only target single-threat drivers risk being inadequate because of the cascading effects caused by unmanaged synergies. Future work should focus on how climate change will interact with and accelerate ongoing threats to biodiversity, such as habitat degradation, overexploitation and invasive species."
43	Brooks1965.pdf	"Brooks, J.L.; Dodson, S.I. 1965. Predation, Body Size, and Composition of Plankton: The effect of a marine planktivore on lake plankton. Science 150:28-35"	8	"The effect of a marine planktivore on lake plankton illustrares theory of size, competition, and predation."
44	Brown1989b.pdf	"Brown, J.H; Maurer, B.A. 1989. Macroecology: The Division of Food and Space among Species on Continents. Science 243:1145-1150"	6	"Analyses of statistical distributions of body mass, population density, and size and shape of geographic range offer insights into the empirical patterns and causal mechanisms that characterize the allocation of food and space among the diverse species in continental biotas. These analyses also provide evidence of the processes that couple ecological phenomena that occur on disparate spatial and temporal scales-from the activities of individual organisms within local populations to the dynamics of continent-wide speciation, colonization, and extinction events."
45	Brown1984.pdf	"Brown, J.H. 1984. On the Relationship between Abundance and Distribution of Species. The American Naturalist 124:255"	1	"How environmental conditions and population processes determine the abundance and distribution of species is a central problem of ecology and biogeography. Although it has long been recognized hat abundance and distribution are intimately interrelated, the nature of this relationship has not been investigated systematically over the range of spatial scales from local populations to entire geographic ranges of species. On a local scale, i.e., the small habitat patches that constitute most ecologists' study areas, the relationship between population den- sity and spatial distribution of individuals has been studied by many population and community ecologists (e.g., Andrewartha and Birch 1954; Krebs 1978, and numerous references therein). Distribution on a large geographic scale has usually been regarded as the special province of biogeography, whose practitioners often have little experience or interest in population ecology (but see, e.g., Grinnell 1922; MacArthur 1972; Walter 1979; Rapoport 1982; Brown and Gibson 1983). Thus few investigators have systematically studied variation in population density over the geographic range of species. Recently, however, several authors have presented data that suggest a general relationship between local population den- sity and spatial distribution on a geographic scale (e.g., Rabinowitz 1981; Hanski 1982a, 1982b, 1982c; Bock and Ricklefs 1983; J. T. Emlen et al., MS). Here I reanalyze and synthesize some of the diverse information available on the relationship between abundance and distribution. These data suggest ex- tremely general patterns within and among species that appear to hold for organ- isms as diverse as vascular plants, intertidal invertebrates, terrestrial arthropods, planktonic crustaceans, and terrestrial vertebrates. I develop a general theory to explain these relationships. This conceptual construct and the empirical observa- tions that motivated it focus attention on problems that span the boundaries between the traditional disciplines of population ecology, community ecology, biogeography, population genetics, and evolution. Clarification of terminology should facilitate understanding of what follows. The paper is concerned with the relationship between two attributes of popula- tions and species: the density of individuals within a local area and the extent of the distribution of individuals in space. I shall often use the term abundance to refer to local population density, and the terms rare and common (or abundant) to describe extremes of density. Similarly, I shall often use distribution or range to refer to spatial distribution, and the terms restricted (or local) and widespread to describe the extremes."
46	Brown2004.pdf	"Brown, J.H. et al. 2004. Toward a metabolic theory of ecology. Ecology 85:1771-1789"	19	"Metabolism provides a basis for using first principles of physics, chemistry, and biology to link the biology of individual organisms to the ecology of populations, communities, and ecosystems. Metabolic rate, the rate at which organisms take up, transform, and expend energy and materials, is the most fundamental biological rate. We have developed a quantitative theory for how metabolic rate varies with body size and temperature. Metabolic theory predicts how metabolic rate, by setting the rates of resource uptake from the environment and resource allocation to survival, growth, and reproduction, controls ecological processes at all levels of organization from individuals to the biosphere. Examples include: (1) life history attributes, including development rate, mortality rate, age at maturity, life span, and population growth rate; (2) population interactions, including carrying capacity, rates of competition and predation, and patterns of species diversity; and (3) ecosystem processes, including rates ..."
47	Brown1988.pdf	"Brown, J.S. 1988. Patch use as an indicator of habitat preference, predation risk, and competition. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 22:37-47"	11	"A technique for using patch giving up densities to investigate habitat preferences, preda- tion risk, and interspecific competitive relation- ships is theoretically analyzed and empirically in- vestigated. Giving up densities, the density of re- sources within a patch at which an individual ceases foraging, provide considerably more infor- mation than simply the amount of resources har- vested. The giving up density of a forager, which is behaving optimally, should correspond to a har- vest rate that just balances the metabolic costs of foraging, the predation cost of foraging, and the missed opportunity cost of not engaging in alterna- tive activities. In addition, changes in giving up densities in response to climatic factors, predation risk, and missed opportunities can be used to test the model and to examine the consistency of the foragers' behavior. The technique was applied to a community of four Arizonan granivorous ro- dents (Perognathus amplus, Dipodomys merriami, Ammospermophilus harrisii, and Spermophilus tere- ticaudus). Aluminum trays filled with 3 grams of millet seeds mixed into 3 liters of sifted soil pro- vided resource patches."
48	Brown1989.pdf	"Brown, J.S. 1989. Desert rodent community structure: a test of four mechanims of coexistence. Ecological Monographs 59:43831"	1	"Four mechanisms of coexistence are considered that may contribute to the diversity of desert granivorous rodent communities. In the first, bush/open microhabitat selection, coexistence is possible if there is a trade-off between foraging efficiency in the bush and open microhabitats. In the second, temporal variation in resource abundances, coexistence is possible if there is a trade-off between foraging efficiency and maintenance efficiency. The first species can forage profitably on low resource abundances while the second uses dormancy to travel inexpensively in time between periods of high resource abundances. In the third, spatial variation in resource abundance, coexistence is possible if there is a trade-off between foraging efficiency and the cost of travel. The first species forages patches to a lower giving-up density, (the density of resource at which a forager ceases foraging), while the second can inexpensively travel between patches with high resource abundances. In the fourth, seasonal rotation in foraging efficiencies, coexistence is possible if there is a trade-off between the costs of foraging during different seasons. The species that is the more efficient forager changes seasonally. The first mechanism of coexistence has received much empirical attention and support. The other three have not previously been considered with desert rodents. In a community of four granivorous rodent species, I used artificial seed patches to measure species- and habitat-specific foraging efficiencies and live-trapping to measure population sizes and mean distances between recaptures. Of the four, the fourth mechanism of coexistence best ex- plained the presence of Perognathits amplus, Dipodomys merriami, and Spermophilus tereticaudus in the community. Each species enjoyed a period of the year during which it was the most efficient forager. Furthermore, the annual population densities of these three species fluctuated out of phase. Seasonal changes in species-specific predation risks and body size-dependent metabolic costs may have accounted for these results. The third mechanism of coexistence best explained the presence of Ammospermophilus harrisil in the community. This species preferred to forage a large number of widely spaced patches to a high giving-up density rather than forage a few patches to a low giving-up density"
49	Brown1999.pdf	"Brown, J.S.; Laundre, J.W.; Gurung, M. 1999. The ecology of fear: optimal foraging, game theory and trophic interactions. Journal of Mammalogy 80:385-399"	15	"Mammalian predator-prey systems are behaviorally sophisticated games of stealth and fear. But, traditional mass-action models of predator prey dynamics treat individuals as behav- iorally unresponsive ""molecules"" in Brownian motion. Foraging theory should provide the conceptual framework to envision the interaction. But, current models of predator feeding behavior generally envision a clever predator consuming large numbers of sessile and behaviorally inert prey (e.g., kangaroo rats, Dipodomys, collecting seeds from food patches). Here, we extend foraging theory to consider a predator-prey game of stealth and fear and then embed this game into the modeling of predator-prey population dynamics. The melding of the prey and predator's optimal behaviors with their population and com- munity-level consequences constitutes the ecology of fear. The ecology of fear identifies the endpoints of a continuum of N-driven (population size) versus pL-driven (fear) systems. In N-driven systems, the major direct dynamical feedback involves predators killing prey, whereas j-driven systems involve the indirect effects from changes in fear levels and prey catchability. In pL-driven systems, prey respond to predators by becoming more vigilant or by moving away from suspected predators. In this way, a predator (e.g., mountain lion, Puma concolor) depletes a food patch (e.g., local herd of mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus) by frightening prey rather than by actually killing prey. Behavior buffers the system: a reduction in predator numbers should rapidly engender less vigilant and more catchable prey. The ecology of fear explains why big fierce carnivores should be and can be rare."
50	Brown1986.pdf	"Brown, W.L.; Wilson, E.O. 1986. Character displacement. Systematic Zoology 5:49-64"	16	"In The Origin of Species, Darwin proposed his principle of divergence of character (a process now termed ""character displacement"") to explain how new species arise and why they differ from each other phenotypically. Darwin maintained that the origin of species and the evolution of differences between them is ultimately caused by divergent selection acting to minimize competitive interactions between initially similar individuals, populations, and species. Here, we examine the empirical support for the various claims that constitute Darwin's principle, specifically that (1) competition promotes divergent trait evolution, (2) the strength of competitively mediated divergent selection increases with increasing phenotypic similarity between competitors, (3) divergence can occur within species, and (4) competitively mediated divergence can trigger speciation. We also explore aspects that Darwin failed to consider. In particular, we describe how (1) divergence can arise from selection acting to lessen reproductive interactions, (2) divergence is fueled by the intersection of character displacement and sexual selection, and (3) phenotypic plasticity may play a key role in promoting character displacement. Generally, character displacement is well supported empirically, and it remains a vital explanation for how new species arise and diversify."
51	Burnham2004.pdf	"Burnham, K.P. 2004. Multimodel Inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in Model Selection. Sociological Methods & Research 33:261-304"	44	No Abstract
52	Burnham2001.pdf	"Burnham, K.P.; Anderson, D.R. 2001. Kullback-Leibler information as a basis for strong inference in ecological studies. Wildlife Research 28:111-119"	9	"We describe an information-theoretic paradigm for analysis of ecological data, based on Kullback - Leibler information, that is an extension of likelihood theory and avoids the pitfalls of null hypothesis testing. Information-theoretic approaches emphasise a deliberate focus on the a priori science in developing a set of multple working hypotheses or models. Simple methods then allow these hypotheses (models) to be ranked from the best to worst and scaled to reflect a strength of evidence using the likelihood od each model (gi), given the data and the models in the set (i.e. L(gi/data)). in addition, a variance component due to model-selection uncertainty is included in estimates of precision. There are many cases where formal inference can be based on all the models in the a priri set and this multi-model inference represents a powerful, new approach to valid inference. Finally, we strongly recommend inferences based on a priori considerations be carefully separated from those resulting from some form of data dreding. An example is given for questions related to age- and sex- dependent rates of tag loss in elephant seals (Mirounga leonina)."
53	Byrnes2006.pdf	"Byrnes, J. et al. 2006. Predator diversity strengthens trophic cascades in kelp forests by modifying herbivore behaviour. Ecology Letters 9:61-71"	11	"Although human-mediated extinctions disproportionately affect higher trophic levels, the ecosystem consequences of declining diversity are best known for plants and herbivores. We combined field surveys and experimental manipulations to examine the consequences of changing predator diversity for trophic cascades in kelp forests. In field surveys we found that predator diversity was negatively correlated with herbivore abundance and positively correlated with kelp abundance. To assess whether this relationship was causal, we manipulated predator richness in kelp mesocosms, and found that decreasing predator richness increased herbivore grazing, leading to a decrease in the biomass of the giant kelp Macrocystis. The presence of different predators caused different herbivores to alter their behaviour by reducing grazing, such that total grazing was lowest at highest predator diversity. Our results suggest that declining predator diversity can have cascading effects on community structure by reducing the abundance of key habitat-providing species."
54	Caldwell1985.pdf	"Caldwell M.M., Eissenstat D.M., Richards J.H. 1985. Competition for phosphorus : differential uptake from dual-isotope-labeled soil interspaces between shrub and grass. Science 229:384-386"	1	"Two species of Agropyron grass differed strikingly in their capacity to compete for phosphate in soil interspaces shared with a common competitor, the sagebrush Artemisia tridentata. Of the total phosphorus-32 and -33 absorbed by Artemisia, 86 percent was from the interspace shared with Agropyron spicatum and only 14 percent from that shared with Agropyron desertorum. Actively absorbing mycorrhizal roots of Agropyron and Artemisia were present in both interspaces, where competition for the labeled phosphate occurred. The results have important implications about the way in which plants compete for resources below ground in both natural plant communities and agricultural intercropping systems."
55	Callaway2002.pdf	"Callaway, R. et al. 2002. Positive interactions among alpine plants increase with stress. Nature 417:844-848"	5	"Plants can have positive effects on each other. For example, the accumulation of nutrients, provision of shade, amelioration of disturbance, or protection from herbivores by some species can enhance the performance of neighbouring species. Thus the notion that the distributions and abundances of plant species are independent of other species may be inadequate as a theoretical underpinning for understanding species coexistence and diversity. But there have been no large-scale experiments designed to examine the generality of positive interactions in plant communities and their importance relative to competition. Here we show that the biomass, growth and reproduction of alpine plant species are higher when other plants are nearby. In an experiment conducted in subalpine and alpine plant communities with 115 species in 11 different mountain ranges, we find that competition generally, but not exclusively, dominates interactions at lower elevations where conditions are less physically stressful. In contrast, at high elevations where abiotic stress is high the interactions among plants are predominantly positive. Furthermore, across all high and low sites positive interactions are more important at sites with low temperatures in the early summer, but competition prevails at warmer sites."
56	Callaway1995.pdf	"Callaway, R.M. 1995. Positive interactions among plants. Botanical Review 61:306-349"	44	"Experimental evidence for positive interactions, or facilitation, among plants has increased markedly during the last 10 years. Experiments documenting facilitation have been conducted in many diverse ecological. systems, which suggests that positive interactions may be fundamental processes in plant communities. Here, I review the evidence for facilitation, the mechanisms by which facilitation operates, and the effects facilitation has on community structure. Facilitative mechanisms may act simultaneously with resource competition or allelopathy, and the overall effect of one species on another may be the product of multiple, complex interactions. Positive interactions may also determine community spatial patterns, permit coexistence, enhance diversity and productivity, and drive community dynamics. Once viewed as anecdotal and idiosyncratic, facilitation is now contributing to a more complete understanding of community structure and dynamics."
57	Cardinale2006.pdf	"Cardinale, B.J. et al. 2006. Effects of biodiversity on the functioning of trophic groups and ecosystems. Nature 443:989-992"	4	"Over the past decade, accelerating rates of species extinction have prompted an increasing number of studies to reduce species diversity experimentally and examine how this alters the efficiency by which communities capture resources and convert those into biomass. So far, the generality of patterns and processes observed in individual studies have been the subjects of considerable debate. Here we present a formal meta-analysis of studies that have experimentally manipulated species diversity to examine how it affects the functioning of numerous trophic groups in multiple types of ecosystem. We show that the average effect of decreasing species richness is to decrease the abundance or biomass of the focal trophic group, leading to less complete depletion of resources used by that group. At the same time, analyses reveal that the standing stock of, and resource depletion by, the most species-rich polyculture tends to be no different from that of the single most productive species used in an experiment. Of the known mechanisms that might explain these trends, results are most consistent with what is called the 'sampling effect', which occurs when diverse communities are more likely to contain and become dominated by the most productive species. Whether this mechanism is widespread in natural communities is currently controversial. Patterns we report are remarkably consistent for four different trophic groups (producers, herbivores, detritivores and predators) and two major ecosystem types (aquatic and terrestrial). Collectively, our analyses suggest that the average species loss does indeed affect the functioning of a wide variety of organisms and ecosystems, but the magnitude of these effects is ultimately determined by the identity of species that are going extinct."
58	Cardinale2007.pdf	"Cardinale, B.J. et al. 2007. Impacts of plant diversity on biomass production increase through time because of species complementarity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:18123-18128"	6	"Accelerating rates of species extinction have prompted a growing number of researchers to manipulate the richness of various groups of organisms and examine how this aspect of diversity impacts ecological processes that control the functioning of ecosystems. We summarize the results of 44 experiments that have manipulated the richness of plants to examine how plant diversity affects the production of biomass. We show that mixtures of species produce an average of 1.7 times more biomass than species monocultures and are more productive than the average monoculture in 79% of all experiments. However, in only 12% of all experiments do diverse polycultures achieve greater biomass than their single most productive species. Previously, a positive net effect of diversity that is no greater than the most productive species has been interpreted as evidence for selection effects, which occur when diversity maximizes the chance that highly productive species will be included in and ultimately dominate the biomass of polycultures. Contrary to this, we show that although productive species do indeed contribute to diversity effects, these contributions are equaled or exceeded by species complementarity, where biomass is augmented by biological processes that involve multiple species. Importantly, both the net effect of diversity and the probability of polycultures being more productive than their most productive species increases through time, because the magnitude of complementarity increases as experiments are run longer. Our results suggest that experiments to date have, if anything, underestimated the impacts of species extinction on the productivity of ecosystems."
59	Cardinale2012.pdf	"Cardinale, B.J.; Duffy, J.E.; Gonzalez, A. 2012. Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 486:59-67"	9	"The most unique feature of Earth is the existence of life, and the most extraordinary feature of life is its diversity. Approximately 9 million types of plants, animals, protists and fungi inhabit the Earth. So, too, do 7 billion people. Two decades ago, at the first Earth Summit, the vast majority of the world/'s nations declared that human actions were dismantling the Earth's ecosystems, eliminating genes, species and biological traits at an alarming rate. This observation led to the question of how such loss of biological diversity will alter the functioning of ecosystems and their ability to provide society with the goods and services needed to prosper."
60	Carpenter1987.pdf	"Carpenter, S.R. et al. 1987. Regulation of lake primary productivity by food web structure. Ecology 68:1863-1876"	14	"We performed whole-lake manipulations of fish populations to test the hy- pothesis that higher trophic levels regulate zooplankton and phytoplankton community structure, biomass, and primary productivity. The study involved three lakes and spanned 2 yr. Results demonstrated hierarchical control of primary production by abiotic factors and a trophic cascade involving fish predation. In Paul Lake, the reference lake, productivity varied from year to year, illustrating the effects of climatic factors and the natural dynamics of unmanipulated food web interactions. In Tuesday Lake, piscivore addition and planktivore reduction caused an increase in zooplankton biomass, a compositional shift from a copepod/rotifer assemblage to a cla- doceran assemblage, a reduction in algal biomass, and a continuous reduction in primary productivity. In Peter Lake, piscivore reduction and planktivore addition decreased zoo- planktivory, because potential planktivores remained in littoral refugia to escape from remaining piscivores. Both zooplankton biomass and the dominance of large cladocerans increased. Algal biomass and primary production increased because of increased concen- trations of gelatinous colonial green algae. Food web effects and abiotic factors were equally potent regulators of primary production in these experiments. Some of the unexplained variance in primary productivity of the world's lakes may be attributed to variability in fish populations and its effects on lower trophic levels."
61	Carpenter1985.pdf	"Carpenter, S.R.; Kitchell, J.F.; Hodgson, J.R. 1985. Cascading trophic interactions and lake productivity. BioScience 35:634-639"	6	"Limnologists have been studying patterns in lake primary pro- ductivity for more than 60 years (Elster 1974). More recently, concern about eutrophication has focused attention on nutrient supply as a regulator of lake productivity. However, nutrient supply cannot explain all the variation in the primary productivity of the world's lakes."
62	Carpenter2009.pdf	"Carpenter, S.R. et al. 2009. Science for managing ecosystem services: Beyond the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106:1305-1312"	8	"The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) introduced a new framework for analyzing social-ecological systems that has had wide influence in the policy and scientific communities. Studies after the MA are taking up new challenges in the basic science needed to assess, project, and manage flows of ecosystem services and effects on human well-being. Yet, our ability to draw general conclu- sions remains limited by focus on discipline-bound sectors of the full social-ecological system. At the same time, some polices and practices intended to improve ecosystem services and human well-being are based on untested assumptions and sparse information. The people who are affected and those who provide resources are increasingly asking for evidence that interventions improve eco- system services and human well-being. New research is needed that considers the full ensemble of processes and feedbacks, for a range of biophysical and social systems, to better understand and manage the dynamics of the relationship between humans and the ecosystems on which they rely. Such research will expand the capacity to address fundamental questions about complex social- ecological systems while evaluating assumptions of policies and practices intended to advance human well-being through improved ecosystem services."
63	Carroll2007.pdf	"Carroll, S.P. et al. 2007. Evolution on ecological time-scales. Functional Ecology 21:387-393"	7	"1. Ecologically significant evolutionary change, occurring over tens of generations or fewer, is now widely documented in nature. These findings counter the long-standing assumption that ecological and evolutionary processes occur on different time-scales, and thus that the study of ecological processes can safely assume evolutionary stasis. Recognition that substantial evolution occurs on ecological time-scales dissolves this dichotomy and provides new opportunities for integrative approaches to pressing ques- tions in many fields of biology. 2. The goals of this special feature are twofold: to consider the factors that influence evolution on ecological time-scales - phenotypic plasticity, maternal effects, sexual selection, and gene flow - and to assess the consequences of such evolution - for population persistence, speciation, community dynamics, and ecosystem function. 3. The role of evolution in ecological processes is expected to be largest for traits that change most quickly and for traits that most strongly influence ecological interactions. Understanding this fine-scale interplay of ecological and evolutionary factors will require a new class of eco-evolutionary dynamic modelling. 4. Contemporary evolution occurs in a wide diversity of ecological contexts, but appears to be especially common in response to anthropogenic changes in selection and population structure. Evolutionary biology may thus offer substantial insight to many conservation issues arising from global change. 5. Recent studies suggest that fluctuating selection and associated periods of contemporary evolution are the norm rather than exception throughout the history of life on earth. The consequences of contemporary evolution for population dynamics and ecological interactions are likely ubiquitous in time and space."
64	Caughley1970.pdf	"Caughley, G. 1970. Eruption of ungulate populations, with emphasis on Himalayan thar in New Zealand. Ecology 51:53-72."	20	"An eruptive fluctuation is defined operationally as an increase in numbers over at least two generations, followed by a marked decline. Reported eruptions in ungulates suggest that the upswing is initiated by a change in food or habitat and is terminated by overgrazing. An apparent exception-the Kaibab eruption-probably also fits this pattern. The interpretation causally linking reduction of predators on the plateau with increase of deer is an overstatement of evidence. Eruption of established populations is essentially the same process as the buildup of populations initiated by liberation, with the difference that in the second case a zone of high density migrates radially from the point of liberation. Eruption of thar (a goat-like bovid) after liberation in New Zealand was studied by sampling populations at different distances from the point of liberation. The aim was to determine trend of demographic stastistics across an eruptive fluctuation that spans 50 years. Although fecundity varied across the eruption, the major influence on rate of increase was traced to variation in death rate. The major component of this variation was the rate of mortality over the first year of life. Trend in death rate, and hence in rate of increase, was associated with trends in other population statistics that are easier to measure. The most useful correlative of rate of increase is probably the level of fat reserves. While we do not know whether trends in population statistics of thar reflect those of other ungulates during an eruptive fluctuation, the generality of the reported trends may usefully serve as a testable hypothesis."
65	Caughley1994.pdf	"Caughley, G. 1994. Directions in conservation biology. Journal of Animal Ecology 63:215-244"	30	"1. Conservation biology has two threads: the small-population paradigm which deals with the effect of smallness on the persistence of a population, and the declining-population paradigm which deals with the cause of smallness and its cure. 2. The processes relevant to the small-population paradigm are amenable to theoretical examination because they generalize across species and are subsumed by an inclusive higher category: stochasticity. 3. In contrast, the processes relevant to the declining-population paradigm are essentially humdrum, being not one but many. So far they have defied tight generalization and hence are of scant theoretical interest. 4. The small-population paradigm has not yet contributed significantly to conserving endangered species in the wild because it treats an effect (smallness) as if it were a cause. It provides an answer only to a trivial question: how long will the population persist if nothing unusual happens? Rather, its major contribution has been to captive breeding and to the design of reserve systems. 5. The declining-population paradigm, on the other hand, is that relevant to most problems of conservation. It summons an investigation to discover the cause of the decline and to prescribe its antidote. Hence, at least at our current level of understanding, it evokes only an ecological investigation which, although utilizing the rigour of tight hypotheses and careful experimentation, is essentially a one-off study of little theoretical interest. 6. The principal contribution of the small-population paradigm is the theoretical underpinning that it imparted to conservation biology, even though most of that theory presently bears tenuous relevance to the specific problems of aiding a species in trouble. It would contribute immeasurably more if some of the theoretical momentum so generated were channelled into providing a theory of driven population declines, thereby liberating the declining-population paradigm from the inefficiency of case-by-case ecological investigations and recovery operations. 7. The declining-population paradigm is urgently in need of more theory. The small-population paradigm needs more practice. Each has much to learn from the other. A cautious intermixing of the two might well lead to a reduction in the rate at which species are presently going extinct."
66	CavenderBares2009.pdf	"Cavender-Bares, J. et al. 2009. The merging of community ecology and phylogenetic biology. Ecology Letters 12:693-715"	23	"The increasing availability of phylogenetic data, computing power and informatics tools has facilitated a rapid expansion of studies that apply phylogenetic data and methods to community ecology. Several key areas are reviewed in which phylogenetic information helps to resolve long-standing controversies in community ecology, challenges previous assumptions, and opens new areas of investigation. In particular, studies in phylogenetic community ecology have helped to reveal the multitude of processes driving community assembly and have demonstrated the importance of evolution in the assembly process. Phylogenetic approaches have also increased understanding of the consequences of community interactions for speciation, adaptation and extinction. Finally, phylogenetic community structure and composition holds promise for predicting ecosystem processes and impacts of global change. Major challenges to advancing these areas remain. In particular, determining the extent to which ecologically relevant traits are phylogenetically conserved or convergent, and over what temporal scale, is critical to understanding the causes of community phylogenetic structure and its evolutionary and ecosystem consequences. Harnessing phylogenetic information to understand and forecast changes in diversity and dynamics of communities is a critical step in managing and restoring the Earth's biota in a time of rapid global change."
68	Chamberlain1965.pdf	Chamberlin T.C. 1965. The method of Multiple Working hypotheses. Science. 15:92-96	1	No Abstract
69	Chapin1980.pdf	"Chapin, F.S. 1980. The Mineral Nutrition of Wild Plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11:233-260"	28	Crop responses to nutrient stress were compared with the responses of spp. which have evolved under more natural environments often low in mineral nutrients.
70	Chapin2006.pdf	"Chapin, F.S. et al. 2006. Reconciling carbon-cycle concepts, terminology, and methods. Ecosystems 9:1041-1050"	10	"Recent projections of climatic change have focused a great deal of scientific and public attention on patterns of carbon (C) cycling as well as its controls, particularly the factors that determine whether an ecosystem is a net source or sink of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Net ecosystem production (NEP), a central concept in C-cycling research, has been used by scientists to represent two different concepts. We propose that NEP be restricted to just one of its two original definitions-the imbalance between gross primary production (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (ER). We further propose that a new term-net ecosystem carbon balance (NECB)-be applied to the net rate of C accumulation in (or loss from [negative sign]) ecosystems. Net ecosystem carbon balance differs from NEP when C fluxes other than C fixation and respiration occur, or when inorganic C enters or leaves in dissolved form. These fluxes include the leaching loss or lateral transfer of C from the ecosystem; the emission of volatile organic C, methane, and carbon monoxide; and the release of soot and CO2 from fire. Carbon fluxes in addition to NEP are particularly important determinants of NECB over long time scales. However, even over short time scales, they are important in ecosystems such as streams, estuaries, wetlands, and cities. Recent technological advances have led to a diversity of approaches to the measurement of C fluxes at different temporal and spatial scales. These approaches frequently capture different components of NEP or NECB and can therefore be compared across scales only by carefully specifying the fluxes included in the measurements. By explicitly identifying the fluxes that comprise NECB and other components of the C cycle, such as net ecosystem exchange (NEE) and net biome production (NBP), we can provide a less ambiguous framework for understanding and communicating recent changes in the global C cycle"
71	Charnov1976.pdf	"Charnov, E.L. 1976. Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem. Theoretical Population Biology 9:129-136"	8	No Abstract
72	Chase2007.pdf	"Chase, J.M. 2007. Drought mediates the importance of stochastic community assembly. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104:17430-17434"	5	"Historically, the biodiversity and composition of species in a locality was thought to be influenced primarily by deterministic factors. In such cases, species' niches create differential responses to environmental conditions and interspecific interactions, which combine to determine that locality's biodiversity and species composition. More recently, proponents of the neutral theory have placed a premium on how stochastic factors, such as birth, death, colonization, and extinction (termed ""ecological drift"") influence diversity and species composition in a locality independent of their niches. Here, I develop the hypothesis that the relative importance of stochastic ecological drift and/or priority effects depend on the harshness of the ecological filter in those habitats. I established long-term experimental ponds to explore the relative importance of community assembly history and drought on patterns of community compositional similarity among ponds that were otherwise similar in their environmental conditions. I show considerable site-to-site variation in pond community composition in the absence of drought that likely resulted from a combination of stochastic ecological drift and priority effects. However, in ponds that experienced drought, I found much higher similarity among communities that likely resulted from niche-selection filtering out species from the regional pool that could not tolerate such environmental harshness. These results implicate the critical role for understanding the processes of community assembly when examining patterns of biodiversity at different spatial scales."
73	Chave2013.pdf	"Chave,J. 2013. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: what have we learned in 20 years? Ecology Letters 16:42461"	1	"Over the past 20 years, major advances have clarified how ecological patterns inform theory, and how in turn theory informs applied ecology. Also, there has been an increased recognition that the problem of scale at which ecological processes should be considered is critical if we are to produce general predictions. Ecological dynamics is always stochastic at small scales, but variability is conditional on the scale of description. The radical changes in the scope and aims of ecology over the past decades reflect in part the need to address pressing societal issues of environmental change. Technological advances in molecular biology, global positioning, sensing instrumentation and computational power should not be overlooked as an explanation for these radical changes. However, I argue that conceptual unification across ecology, genetics, evolution and physiology has fostered even more fertile questions. We are moving away from the view that evolution is played in a fixed ecological theatre: the theatre is being rapidly and relentlessly redesigned by the players themselves. The maintenance of ecosystem functions depends on shifts in species assemblages and on cellular metabolism, not only on flows of energy and matter. These findings have far reaching implications for our understanding of how ecosystem function and biodiversity will withstand (or not) environmental changes in the 21st century."
74	Chesson2000.pdf	"Chesson, P. 2000. Mechanisms of Maintenance of Species Diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31:343-366"	24	"The focus of most ideas on diversity maintenance is species coexistence, which may be stable or unstable. Stable coexistence can be quantified by the long-term rates at which community members recover from low density. Quantification shows that coexistence mechanisms function in two major ways: They may be (a) equalizing because they tend to minimize average fitness differences between species, or (b) stabilizing because they tend to increase negative intraspecific interactions relative to negative interspecific interactions. Stabilizing mechanisms are essential for species coexistence and include traditional mechanisms such as resource partitioning and frequency-dependent predation, as well as mechanisms that depend on fluctuations in population densities and environmental factors in space and time. Equalizing mechanisms contribute to stable coexistence because they reduce large average fitness inequalities which might negate the effects of stabilizing mechanisms. Models of unstable coexitence, in which species diversity slowly decays over time, have focused almost exclusively on equalizing mechanisms. These models would be more robust if they also included stabilizing mechanisms, which arise in many and varied ways but need not be adequate for full stability of a system. Models of unstable coexistence invite a broader view of diversity maintenance incorporating species turnover."
75	Chesson2008.pdf	"Chesson, P.; Kuang, J.J. 2008. The interaction between predation and competition. Nature 456:235-238"	4	"Competition and predation are the most heavily investigated species interactions in ecology, dominating studies of species diversity maintenance. However, these two interactions are most commonly viewed highly asymmetrically. Competition for resources is seen as the primary interaction limiting diversity, with predation modifying what competition does, although theoretical models have long supported diverse views. Here we show, using a comprehensive three-trophic-level model, that competition and predation should be viewed symmetrically: these two interactions are equally able to either limit or promote diversity. Diversity maintenance requires within-species density feedback loops to be stronger than between-species feedback loops. We quantify the contributions of predation and competition to these loops in a simple, interpretable form, showing their equivalent potential to strengthen or weaken diversity maintenance. Moreover, we show that competition and predation can undermine each other, with the tendency of the stronger interaction to promote or limit diversity prevailing. The past failure to appreciate the symmetrical effects and interactions of competition and predation has unduly restricted diversity maintenance studies. A multitrophic perspective should be adopted to examine a greater variety of possible effects of predation than generally considered in the past. Conservation and management strategies need to be much more concerned with the implications of changes in the strengths of trophic interactions."
76	Chesson1981.pdf	"Chesson, P.L.; Warner, R.R. 1981. Environmental variability promotes coexistence in lottery competitive-systems. American Naturalist 117:923"	1	"In deterministic approaches to modeling, two species are generally regarded as capable of coexistence if the model has a stable equilibrium with both species in positive numbers. Temporal environmental variability is assumed to reduce the likelihood of coexistence by keeping species abundances away from equilibrium. Here we present a contrasting view based on a model of competition for space among coral reef fishes, or any similarly territorial animals. The model has no stable equilibrium point with both species in positive abundance, yet both species persist in the system provided environmental variability in birth rates is sufficiently high. In general the higher the environmental variability the more likely it is that coexistence will occur. This conclusion is not affected by one species having a mean advantage over the other. Not all kinds of environmental variability necessarily lead to coexistence, however, for when the death rates of the two species are highly variable and negatively correlated, the extinction of one species, determined by chance, is likely to occur. The results in this paper are shown to depend on the nonlinearity of the dynamics of the system. This nonlinearity arises from the simple fact that the animals have overlapping generations. When applied to the coral reef fish setting, our analysis confirms the view that coexistence can occur in a system where space is allocated largely at random, provided environmental variability is sufficiently great (Sale 1977); but our explanations and predictions differ in detail with those of Sale. "
77	Clark2003.pdf	"Clark, J.S. ; McLachlan, J.S. 2003. Stability of forest biodiversity. Nature 423:635-638"	4	"Two hypotheses to explain potentially high forest biodiversity have different implications for the number and kinds of species that can coexist and the potential loss of biodiversity in the absence of speciation. The first hypothesis involves stabilizing mechanisms, which include tradeoffs between species in terms of their capacities to disperse to sites where competition is weak, to exploit abundant resources effectively and to compete for scarce resources. Stabilization results because competitors thrive at different times and places. An alternative, 'neutral model' suggests that stabilizing mechanisms may be superfluous. This explanation emphasizes 'equalizing' mechanisms, because competitive exclusion of similar species is slow. Lack of ecologically relevant differences means that abundances experience random 'neutral drift', with slow extinction. The relative importance of these two mechanisms is unknown, because assumptions and predictions involve broad temporal and spatial scales. Here we demonstrate that predictions of neutral drift are testable using palaeodata. The results demonstrate strong stabilizing forces. By contrast with the neutral prediction of increasing variance among sites over time, we show that variances in post-Glacial tree abundances among sites stabilize rapidly, and abundances remain coherent over broad geographical scales."
78	Clarke1979.pdf	"Clarke, B.C. 1979. The Evolution of Genetic Diversity. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 205:453-474"	22	"The existence within natural populations of large amounts of genetic variation in molecules and morphology presents an evolutionary problem. The 'neutralist' solution to this problem, that the variation is usually unimportant to the organisms displaying it, has now lost much of its strength. Interpretations that assume widespread heterozygous advantage also face serious difficulties. A resolution is possible in terms of frequency-dependent selection by predators, parasites and competitors. The evidence for pervasive frequency-dependent selection is now very strong. It appears to follow naturally from the behaviour of predators, from the evolutionary lability of parasites, from the ecology of competition and, at the molecular level, from the phenomena of enzyme kinetics. Such selection can explain the maintenance not only of conventional polymorphism but also of continuous variation in both molecular and morphological characters. It can account for the occurrence of diversity within groups of haploid and self-fertilizing organisms, and for the evolution of differences between individuals in their systems of genetic control."
79	Clements1936.pdf	"Clements, F.E. 1936. Nature and structure of the climax. Journal of Ecology 24:252-284"	33	"Presenting an overview of his ideas, involving the climax as a superorganism. Many deliciously obscure technical terms."
80	Cody1966.pdf	Cody M.L. 1966. A General Theory of Clutch Size. Evolution 20:174-184	11	No Abstract
81	Coley1985.pdf	"Coley, P.D.; Bryant, J.P.; Chapin, F.S. 1985. Resource Availability and Plant Antiherbivore Defense. Science 230:895-899"	5	"The degree of herbivory and the effectiveness of defens es varies widely among plant species. Resource availability in the environment is proposed as the major determinant of both the amount and type of plant defense. When resources are limited, plants with inherently slow growth are favored over those with fast growth rates; slow rates in turn favor large investments in antiherbivore defenses. Leaf lifetime, also determined by resource availability, affects the relative advantages of defenses with different turnover rates. Relative limitation of different resources also constrains the types of defenses. The proposals are compared with other theories on the evolution of plant defenses."
82	Colwell2009.pdf	"Colwell, R.K.; Rangel, T.F. 2009. Hutchinson's duality: The once and future niche. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:19651-19658"	8	"The duality between �niche� and �biotope� proposed by G. Evelyn Hutchinson provides a powerful way to conceptualize and analyze biogeographical distributions in relation to spatial environmental patterns. Both Joseph Grinnell and Charles Elton had attributed niches to environments. Attributing niches, instead, to species, allowed Hutchinson's key innovation: the formal severing of physical place from environment that is expressed by the duality. In biogeography, the physical world (a spatial extension of what Hutchinson called the biotope) is conceived as a map, each point (or cell) of which is characterized by its geographical coordinates and the local values of environmental attributes at a given time. Exactly the same environmental attributes define the corresponding niche space, as niche axes, allowing reciprocal projections between the geographic distribution of a species, actual or potential, past or future, and its niche. In biogeographical terms, the realized niche has come to express not only the effects of species interactions (as Hutchinson intended), but also constraints of dispersal limitation and the lack of contemporary environments corresponding to parts of the fundamental niche. Hutchinson's duality has been used to classify and map environments; model potential species distributions under past, present, and future climates; study the distributions of invasive species; discover new species; and simulate increasingly more realistic worlds, leading to spatially explicit, stochastic models that encompass speciation, extinction, range expansion, and evolutionary adaptation to changing environments."
83	Connell1961.pdf	"Connell, J.H. 1961. The Influence of Interspecific Competition and Other Factors on the Distribution of the Barnacle Chthamalus Stellatus. Ecology 42:710-743"	34	"Adults of Chthalllaills stellatus occur In the marine intertidal in a zone above that of another barnacle, Balallus balallo�des. Young Chthamalus settle in the Balanus zone but evidently seldom survive, since few adults are found there. The survival of Chthallaills which had settled at various levels in the Balanus zone was followed for a year by successive censuses of mapped individuals. Some Chthalllalus were kept free of contact with Balallus. These survived very well at all intertidal le'els, indicating that increased time of submergence was not the factor responsible for elimination of Chthallalus at low shore levels. Comparison of the survival of unprotected populations with others. protected by enclosure in cages from predation by the snail, Thais lapillus. shOved that Thais was not greatly affecting the survival of Chthallalus. Comparison of the survival of undisturbed populations of Clzthallalus with those kept free of contact with Balallus indicated that Balallus could cause great mortality of Chthallalus. Balanus settled in greater population densities and grew faster than Chthalllalus. Direct observations at each census showed that Balanus smothered, undercut, or crushed the Chtlzamalus; the greatest mortality of Chthamalus occurred during the seasons of most rapid growth of Balanus. Even older Chthal11alus transplanted to low levels were killed by Balanus in this way. Predation by Thais tended to decrease the severity of this interspecific competition. Survivors of Chtha11lalus after a year of crowding hy Balanlts were smaller than uncrowded ones. Since smaller barnacles produce fewer offspring, competition tended to reduce reproductive efficiency in addition to increasing mortality. :Iortality as a result of intraspecies competition for space between individuals of Chthamalus was only rarely observed. The evidence of this and other studies indicates that the lower limit of distribution of intertidal organisms is mainly determined by the action of biotic factors such as competition for space or predation. The upper limit is probably more� often set hy physical factors."
84	Connell1961a.pdf	"Connell, J.H. 1961a. Effects of competition , predation by Thais lapillus, and other factors on natural populations of the barnacle Balanus balanoides. Ecological Monographs 31:61-104"	44	"The objective was to study some of the factors determining the distribution, abundance and age structure of a natural population of intertidal barnacles at Millport, Scotland. Individual barnacles were mapped and their survival followed for 2-1/2 years at different tidal levels and at various population densities. Thais lapillus, a predatory gastropod, was excluded from some populations by cages fastened with screws to the rock; it was also placed inside cages to measure its rate of feeding. Recruitment from the plankton is limited by space on the surface. Early mortality is caused by warm weather or breakage during storms. During rapid growth at high population densities intraspecific crowding (crushing, displacement, smothering) was observed. Mortality increases with population density. Older barnacles are seldom affected by crowding. The upper shore limit of distribution is determined by adverse weather. Mortality is high during the first year of life; occasional good survival results in dominant year classes at high levels. Predatory Thais occurred in the middle of the shore, most commonly in summer and autumn. They fed about 60% of the time in summer, when feeding rates were highest. Thais chose the larger barnacles as prey; only above the upper limit of Thais did barnacles survive more than 2 years. From population censuses and feeding rate measurements the mortality rate of barnacles due to predation was calculated. Expressed as a proportion of the total barnacle mortality rate, the results showed that the Thais population could account for all the mortality at three shore levels in summer and for smaller proportions in the other seasons over 2 years. By eliminating the larger barnacles and thus allowing space for young, fast-growing ones, Thais increases the productivity of the barnacle population; this tends to produce the ""optimum yield"" for the predator population. Barnacle zonation in the intertidal region is bounded at the top by deleterious physical factors and at the bottom by biotic ones (competition for space and predation). Fluctuations in these factors are greatest at the upper and lower limits; recruitment and mortality are less variable in the middle shore."
85	Connell1978.pdf	"Connell, J.H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199:1302-1310"	9	"The commonly observed high diversity of trees in tropical rain forests and corals on tropical reefs is a nonequilibrium state which, if not disturbed further, will progress toward a low-diversity equilibrium community. This may not happen if gradu- al changes in climate favor different species. If equilibrium is reached, a lesser degree of diversity may be sustained by niche diversification or by a compensatory mortality that favors inferior competitors. However, tropical forests and reefs are subject to severe disturbances often enough that equilibrium may never be attained"
86	Connell2010.pdf	"Connell, J.H. 2010. Diversity and the Coevolution of Competitors, or the Ghost of Competition Past. Oikos 35:131-138"	8	"That niches of competitors in ecological communities are shaped by mutual coevolution, which thus allows many species to coexist, is a commonly-held view. Two species must live together consistently to coevolve, so since predators (or parasites) are dependent upon their prey, they will necessarily co-occur with them and so should coevolve. In contrast, competing species, which are not dependent on each other, need not consistently co-occur or coevolve. Increased diversity, by reducing the consistency of co-occurrence, also reduces the chance of coevolution. To demonstrate coevolutionary divergence of competitors one must show: 1) that divergence has actually occurred: this has been done for some fossil sequences but not for any extant competitors; 2) that competition, rather than some other mechanism, is responsible; and 3) that it has a genetic basis. To demonstrate 2) and 3) for natural populations requires appropriate field experiments, which are suggested in the paper. This has been done, in part, in only one case. Thus the notion of coevolutionary shaping of competitors' niches has little support at present. Theory and evidence suggest that it is probable only in low diversity communities."
87	Connell1977.pdf	"Connell, J.H.; Slatyer, R.O. 1977. Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organisation. The American Naturalist 111:1119-1144"	26	"The sequence of species observed after a relatively large space is opened up is a consequence of the following mechanisms. ""Opportunist"" species with broad dispersal powers and rapid growth to maturity usually arrive first and occupy empty space. These species cannot invade and grow in the presence of adults of their own or other species. Several alternative mechanisms may then determine which species replace these early occupants. Three models of such mechanisms have been proposed. The first ""facilitation"" model suggests that the entry and growth of the later species is dependent upon the earlier species ""preparing the ground""; only after this can later species colonize. Evidence in support of this model applies mainly to certain primary successions and in heterotrophic succession. A second ""tolerance"" model suggests that a predictable sequence is produced by the existence of species that have evolved different strategies for exploiting resources. Later species will be those able to tolerate lower levels of resources than earlier ones. Thus they can invade and grow to maturity in the presence of those that preceded them. At present there exists little evidence in support of this model. A third ""inhibition"" model suggests that all species resist invasions of com- petitors. The first occupants preempt the space and will continue to exclude or inhibit later colonists until the former die or are damaged, thus releasing re- sources. Only then can later colonists reach maturity. A considerable body of evidence exists in support of this model. In the majority of natural communities succession is frequently interrupted by major disturbances, such as fires, storms, insect plagues, etc., starting the process all over again. However, if not interrupted, it eventually reaches a stage in which further change is on a small scale as individuals die and are replaced. The pattern of these changes will depend upon whether individuals are more likely to be replaced by a member of their own or another species. If the former, stability will be assured. However, in terrestrial communities, conditions in the soil in the immediate vicinity of long-lived plants may become modified in such a way that offspring of the same species are much less favored than those of other species. A likely cause is the buildup of host-specific pathogenic soil organisms near a long-lived plant. In this case, the species at each local site keep changing, producing local instability. Whether the average species composition of the whole tract does not change, exhibiting global stability, or whether it keeps changing has not yet been decided for any natural community."
88	Connor1983.pdf	"Connor, E; Simberloff, D. 1983. Interspecific competition and species co-occurrence patterns on islands: null models and the evaluation of evidence. Oikos 41:455-465"	11	"Several recent studies have adduced non-overlapping geographic ranges as evidence that two species competitively exclude one another. We have previously pointed out that to show that a particular pattern of species' co-occurrence is unusually exclusive (for whatever reason), one must contrast the observed pattern with that expected were species placed independently of one another, and one must consider all species, not only those that appear a priori to have unusually exclusive ranges. Furthermore, even when one is able to show that an unusually large number of species' distributions are improbably exclusive, in the absence of independent non-distributional evidence capable of eliminating other reasonable explanations for these odd dis- tributions, one cannot infer that competition or any other specific cause is responsible for the observed pattern. Other workers have critized our methods, suggested alternative procedures, and damned the use of null models in ecology. We respond to these criticisms and illustrate problems that beset these alternative procedures. We also reaffirm our view that null hypotheses in ecology are useful."
89	Connor1979a.pdf	"Connor, E.F.; Simberloff, D. 1979. The assembly of species communities - chance or competition. Ecology 60:1132-1140"	9	"We challenge Diamond's (1975) idea that island species distributions are determined predominantly by competition as canonized by his ""assembly rules."" We show that every assembly rule is either tautological, trivial, or a pattern expected were species distributed at random. In order to demonstrate that competition is responsible for the joint distributions of species, one would have to falsify a null hypothesis stating that the distributions are generated by the species randomly and individually colonizing an archipelago."
90	Connor1979.pdf	"Connor, E.F.; McCoy, E.D. 1979. The Statistics and Biology of the Species-Area Relationship. The American Naturalist 113:791"	1	"Regional differences in species number have puzzled naturalists since the early 1800's, and explanations account for a large part of modern ecological research. Two venerable observations form the cornerstone of our knowledge on the subject: The number of species within a taxonomic group tends to increase with decreasing latitude (see Fischer 1960; Pianka 1966); and the number of species within a taxonomic group tends to increase with increasing area (see Preston 1960, 1962; Williams 1964; MacArthur and Wilson 1967; Simberloff 1972). Despite early research on the latter trend (the species-area relationship), ecologists have studied it intensely only in the last 50 yr. The relationship was originally envisioned as an empirical tool and used in three principle ways: (1) to determine optimal sample size and sample number, (2) to determine the minimum area of a ""community,"" and (3) to predict the number of species in areas larger than those sampled. All three uses are discussed by Kilburn (1966)."
91	Cornell2013.pdf	"Cornell, H.V. 2013. Is regional species diversity bounded or unbounded? Biological Reviews 88:140-165"	26	"Two conflicting hypotheses have been proposed to explain large-scale species diversity patterns and dynamics. The unbounded hypothesis proposes that regional diversity depends only on time and diversification rate and increases without limit. The bounded hypothesis proposes that ecological constraints place upper limits on regional diversity and that diversity is usually close to its limit. Recent evidence from the fossil record, phylogenetic analysis, biogeography, and phenotypic disparity during lineage diversification suggests that diversity is constrained by ecological processes but that it is rarely asymptotic. Niche space is often unfilled or can be more finely subdivided and still permit coexistence, and new niche space is often created before ecological limits are reached. Damped increases in diversity over time are the prevalent pattern, suggesting the need for a new 'damped increase hypothesis'. The damped increase hypothesis predicts that diversity generally increases through time but that its rate of increase is often slowed by ecological constraints. However, slowing due to niche limitation must be distinguished from other possible mechanisms creating similar patterns. These include sampling artifacts, the inability to detect extinctions or declines in clade diversity with some methods, the distorting effects of correlated speciation-extinction dynamics, the likelihood that opportunities for allopatric speciation will vary in space and time, and the role of undetected natural enemies in reducing host ranges and thus slowing speciation rates. The taxonomic scope of regional diversity studies must be broadened to include all ecologically similar species so that ecological constraints may be accurately inferred. The damped increase hypothesis suggests that information on evolutionary processes such as time-for-speciation and intrinsic diversification rates as well as ecological factors will be required to explain why regional diversity varies among times, places and taxa."
92	Cornwell2006.pdf	"Cornwell, W.K.; Schwilk, D.W.; Ackerly, D.D. 2006. A trait-based test for habitat filtering: Convex hull volume. Ecology 87:1465-1471"	7	"Community assembly theory suggests that two processes affect the distribution of trait values within communities: competition and habitat filtering. Within a local community, competition leads to ecological differentiation of coexisting species, while habitat filtering reduces the spread of trait values, reflecting shared ecological tolerances. Many statistical tests for the effects of competition exist in the literature, but measures of habitat filtering are less well-developed. Here, we present convex hull volume, a construct from computational geometry, which provides an n-dimensional measure of the volume of trait space occupied by species in a community. Combined with ecological null models, this measure offers a useful test for habitat filtering. We use convex hull volume and a null model to analyze California woody-plant trait and community data. Our results show that observed plant communities occupy less trait space than expected from random assembly, a result consistent with habitat filtering."
93	Costanza1997.pdf	"Costanza, R. et al. 1997. The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253-260"	8	"The services of ecological systemsandthe natural capitalstocksthat producethemarecritical to the functioning ofthe Earth�s life-support system. They contribute to human welfare, both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the total economic value of the planet.We have estimated the current economic value of17ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire biosphere, the value (most of which is outside the market) is estimated to be in the range of US$16�54 trillion (1012) per year, with an average of US$33trillion peryear.Becauseofthe natureofthe uncertainties, thismustbeconsideredaminimumestimate. Global gross national product total is around US$18 trillion per year."
94	Cottingham2004.pdf	"Cottingham K.L., Lennon J.T., Brown B.L. 2004. Knowing when to draw the line : designing more informative ecological experiments. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 486:59-67"	9	"Linear regression and analysis of variance (ANOVA) are two of the most widely used statistical techniques in ecology. Regression quantitatively describes the relationship between a response variable and one or more con- tinuous independent variables, while ANOVA determines whether a response variable differs among discrete values of the independent variable(s). Designing experiments with discrete factors is straightforward because ANOVA is the only option, but what is the best way to design experiments involving continuous factors? Should ecologists prefer experiments with few treatments and many replicates analyzed with ANOVA, or experiments with many treatments and few replicates per treatment analyzed with regression? We recom- mend that ecologists choose regression, especially replicated regression, over ANOVA when dealing with con? tinuous factors for two reasons: (1) regression is generally a more powerful approach than ANOVA and (2) regression provides quantitative output that can be incorporated into ecological models more effectively than ANOVA output."
95	Coulson2001.pdf	"Coulson, T. et al. 2001. Age, sex, density, winter weather, and population crashes in Soay sheep. Science 292:1528-1531"	4	"Quantifying the impact of density, extrinsic climatic fluctuations, and demography on population fluctuations is a persistent challenge in ecology. We analyzed the effect of these processes on the irregular pattern of population crashes of Soay sheep on the St. Kilda archipelago, United Kingdom. Because the age and sex structure of the population fluctuates independently of population size, and because animals of different age and sex respond in different ways to density and weather, identical weather conditions can result in different dynamics in populations of equal size. In addition, the strength of density-dependent processes is a function of the distribution of weather events. Incorporating demographic heterogeneities into population models can influence dynamics and their response to climate change."
96	Courchamp1999.pdf	"Courchamp, F.; Clutton-Brock, T.; Grenfell, B. 1999. Inverse density dependence and the Allee effect. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14:405-410"	6	"The Allee effect describes a scenario in which populations at low numbers are affected by a positive relationship between population growth rate and density, which increases their likelihood of extinction. The importance of this dynamic process in ecology has been under-appreciated and recent evidence now suggests that it might have an impact on the population dynamics of many plant and animal species. Studies of the causal mechanisms generating Allee effects in small populations could provide a key to understanding their dynamics."
97	Courchamp2015.pdf	"Courchamp, F. et al. 2015. Fundamental ecology is fundamental. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 30:42614"	1	"The primary reasons for conducting fundamental re-search are satisfying curiosity, acquiring knowledge, and achieving understanding. Here we develop why we believe it is essential to promote basic ecological research, despite increased impetus for ecologists to conduct and present their research in the light of poten-tial applications. This includes the understanding of our environment, for intellectual, economical, social, and political reasons, and as a major source of innovation. We contend that we should focus less on short-term, objective-driven research and more on creativity and exploratory analyses, quantitatively estimate the bene-fits of fundamental research for society, and better ex-plain the nature and importance of fundamental ecology to students, politicians, decision makers, and the general public. Our perspective and underlying arguments should also apply to evolutionary biology and to many of the other biological and physical sciences."
98	Couzin2005.pdf	"Couzin, I.D. et al. 2005. Effective leadership and decision-making in animal groups on the move. Nature 433:513-516"	4	"For animals that forage or travel in groups, making movement decisions often depends on social interactions among group members. However, in many cases, few individuals have pertinent information, such as knowledge about the location of a food source, or of a migration route. Using a simple model we show how information can be transferred within groups both without signalling and when group members do not know which individuals, if any, have information. We reveal that the larger the group the smaller the proportion of informed individuals needed to guide the group, and that only a very small proportion of informed individuals is required to achieve great accuracy. We also demonstrate how groups can make consensus decisions, even though informed individuals do not know whether they are in a majority or minority, how the quality of their information compares with that of others, or even whether there are any other informed individuals. Our model provides new insights into the mechanisms of effective leadership and decision-making in biological systems."
99	Coyne1989.pdf	"Coyne, J.A.; Orr, A.H. 1989. Patterns of Speciation in Drosophila. Evolution 43:362-381"	20	"To investigate the time course of speciation, we gathered literature data on 119 pairs of closely related Drosophila species with known genetic distances, mating discrimination, strength of hybrid sterility and inviability, and geographic ranges. Because genetic distance is correlated with divergence time, these data provide a cross-section of taxa at different stages of speciation. Mating discrimination and the sterility or inviability of hybrids increase gradually with time. Hybrid sterility and inviability evolve at similar rates. Among allopatric species, mating discrimination and postzygotic isolation evolve at comparable rates, but among sympatric species strong mating discrimination appears well before severe sterility or inviability. This suggests that prezygotic reproductive isolation may be reinforced when allopatric taxa become sympatric. Analysis of the evolution of postzygotic isolation shows that recently diverged taxa usually produce sterile or inviable male but not female hybrids. Moreover, there is a large temporal gap between the evolution of male-limited and female hybrid sterility or inviability. This gap, which is predicted by recent theories about the genetics of speciation, explains the overwhelming preponderance of hybridizations yielding male-limited hybrid sterility or inviability (Haldane's rule)."
100	Cremer2007.pdf	"Cremer, S.; Armitage, S.A.O.; Schmid-Hempel, P. 2007. Social Immunity. Current Biology 17:693-702"	10	"Social insect colonies have evolved collective immune defences against parasites. These 'social immune systems' result from the cooperation of the individual group members to combat the increased risk of disease transmission that arises from sociality and group living. In this review we illustrate the pathways that parasites can take to infect a social insect colony and use these pathways as a framework to predict colony defence mechanisms and present the existing evidence. We find that the collective defences can be both prophylactic and activated on demand and consist of behavioural, physiological and organisational adaptations of the colony that prevent parasite entrance, establishment and spread. We discuss the regulation of collective immunity, which requires complex integration of information about both the parasites and the internal status of the insect colony. Our review concludes with an examination of the evolution of social immunity, which is based on the consequences of selection at both the individual and the colony level. "
101	Crouse1987.pdf	"Crouse, D.T; Crowder, L.B; Caswell, H. 1987. A Stage-Based Population Model for Loggerhead Sea Turtles and Implications for Conservation. Ecology 68:1412"	1	"Management of many species is currently based on an inadequate understanding of their population dynamics. Lack of age�specific demographic information, particularly for long�lived iteroparous species, has impeded development of useful models. We use Lefkovitch stage class matrix model, based on preliminary life table developed by Frazer (1983), to point to interim management measures and to identify those data most critical to refining our knowledge about the population dynamics of threatened loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Population projections are used to examine the sensitivity of Frazer's life table to variations in parameter estimates as well as the likely response of the population to various management alternatives. Current management practices appear to be focused on the least responsive life stage, eggs on nesting�beaches. Alternative protection efforts for juvenile loggerheads,such as using turtle excluder devices (TEDs), may be far more effective."
102	Currie2004.pdf	"Currie, D. et al. 2004. Predictions and tests of climate-based hypotheses of broad-scale variation in taxonomic richness. Ecology Letters 7:1121-1134"	1	"Broad-scale variation in taxonomic richness is strongly correlated with climate. Many mechanisms have been hypothesized to explain these patterns; however, testable predictions that would distinguish among them have rarely been derived. Here, we examine several prominent hypotheses for climate-richness relationships, deriving and testing predictions based on their hypothesized mechanisms. The ?energy-richness hypothesis? (also called the more individuals hypothesis ) postulates that more productive areas have more individuals and therefore more species. More productive areas do often have more species, but extant data are not consistent with the expected causal relationship from energy to numbers of individuals to numbers of species. We reject the energy-richness hypothesis in its standard form and consider some proposed modifications. The physiological tolerance hypothesis postulates that richness varies according to the tolerances of individual species for different sets of climatic conditions. This hypothesis predicts that more combinations of physiological parameters can survive under warm and wet than cold or dry conditions. Data are qualitatively consistent with this prediction, but are inconsistent with the prediction that species should fill climatically suitable areas. Finally, the speciation rate hypothesis postulates that speciation rates should vary with climate, due either to faster evolutionary rates or stronger biotic interactions increasing the opportunity for evolutionary diversification in some regions. The biotic interactions mechanism also has the potential to amplify shallower, underlying gradients in richness. Tests of speciation rate hypotheses are few (to date), and their results are mixed."
103	Damuth1981.pdf	"Damuth, J. 1981. Body Size in Mammals. Nature 290:699-700"	2	No Abstract
104	Darwin1858.pdf	"Darwin, C.R.; Wallace, A.R. 1858. On the tendency of species to form varieties; and on the perpetuation of varieties and species by natural means of selection. Journal of the proceedings of the Linnean Society of London Zoology 3:45-62"	18	No Abstract
105	Dayton1971.pdf	"Dayton, P.K. 1971. Competition, Disturbance, and Community Organization : The Provision and Subsequent Utilization of Space in a Rocky Intertidal. Ecological Monographs 41:351-389"	39	"An understanding of community structure should be based on evidence that the growth and regulation of the component populations in the community are affected in a predictable manner by natural physical disturbances and by interactions with other species in the com- munity. This study presents an experimental evaluation of the effects of such disturbances and competitive interactions on populations of sessile organisms in the rocky intertidal com- munity, for which space can be demonstrated to be the most important limiting resource. This research was carried out at eight stations on the Washington coastline which have been ranked according to an exposure/desiccation gradient and subjected to comparable manipulation and observation. Physical variables such as wave exposure, battering by drift logs, and desiccation have im- portant effects on the distribution and abundance of many of the sessile species in the com- munity. In particular, wave exposure and desiccation have a major influence on the distribu- tion patterns of all the algae and of the anemone Anthopleura elegantissima. The probability of damage from drift logs is very high in areas where logs have accumulated along the inter- tidal. Log damage and wave exposure have complementary effects in the provision of free space in a mussel bed, as wave shock enlarges a patch created by log damage by wrenching the mussels from the substratum at the periphery of the bare patch. Competition for primary space results in clear dominance hierarchies, in which barnacles are dominant over algae. Among the barnacles, Balanus cariosus is dominant over both B. glandula and Chthamalus dalli; B. glandula is dominant over C. dalli. The mussel Mytilus californianus requires secondary space (certain algae, barnacles, or byssal threads) for larval settlement, but is capable of growing over all other sessile species and potentially is the com- petitive dominant of space in thie community"
106	Dayton1973.pdf	"Dayton, P.K. 1973. Two cases of resource partitioning in an intertidal community: Making the right prediction for the wrong reason. The American Naturalist 107:662"	1	No Abstract
107	Dayton1992.pdf	"Dayton, P.K. et al. 1992. Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Disturbance and Recovery in a Kelp Forest Community. Ecological Monographs 62:421-445"	25	No Abstract
108	Dayton1974.pdf	"Dayton, P.K. et al. 1974. Biological Accommodation in the Benthic Community at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Ecological Monographs 44:105-128"	24	"Studies of the benthos between 30 and 60 m at Cape Armitage, McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, reveal an epifaunal community in which sponges and their asteroid and nudibranch predators predominate. Field experiments demonstrated that, with the exception of Mycale acerata, the growth rates of the sponges are too slow to measure in 1 yr. Mycale, however, was observed to increase its mass as much as 67 per cent. Because of its more rapid growth rate. Mycale appears to be the potential dominant in competition for substratum space, the resource potentially limiting to the sessile spp. This conclusion is supported by observations of Mycale growing over and, in some cases, apparently having smothered many other sessile spp representing at least 3 phyla. The densities and size frequency distributions of all the predators were measured; numerous feeding observations allowed an accurate appraisal of dietary compositions. Because of the predators' very slow consumption rates, however, direct measures of ingestion and its impact on prey populations were not possible. Estimates of the ingestion rates were derived from measurements of predator respiration rates, growth rates, and gonad growth. Data from the field surveys and the energetics studies suggest that Mycale is prevented from dominating the space resource by the predation of 2 asteroids, Perknaster fuscus antarcticus and Acodontaster conspicuus. Adult Perknaster specialize on Mycale, and the sponge provides a small proportion of the diet of A. conspicuus. Acodontaster conspicuus and the dorid nudibranch Austrodoris mcmurdensis are the most important predators on three species of rossellid sponges (Rossella racovitzae, R. nuda, and Scolymastra joubini). Despite this relatively heavy consumption and despite the fact that none of these sponges has a refuge in growth from potential mortality from A. conspicuus, very large standing crops of the rossellid sponges have accumulated. This accumulation appears to result from predation on larval and young A. conspicuus and Austrodoris by Odontaster validus, which is primarily a detrital feeder and apparently acts as a filter against the settlement and survival of the A. conspicuus and Austrodoris larvae. In addition, predation upon adult A. conspicuus by O. validus and the actinian Urticinopsis antacticus annually kills approx 3.5 per cent of the A. conspicuus population. This mortality exceeds the apparent rate at which A. conspicuus escape the larval filter."
109	Dempster1955.pdf	"Dempster, E.R. 1955. Maintenance of genetic heterogeneity. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 20:25-32"	8	"If much of the recent work in quantitative genetics points to any common conclusion, it is that there is a remarkable genetic diversity within natural and domestic populations, perhaps much greater than was commonly supposed ten or twenty years ago. There are numerous ways imaginable in which diversity could be maintained, although many of these possible mechanisms in combination appear inadequate to explain the observations. Studies, both experimental and analytical, directed toward this problem of maintenance may lead to a better understanding of the nature of the diversity that exists. The present paper is a brief survey of some of the principal mechanisms that can operate in large populations to maintain genetic variance, with particular reference to variance of fitness, followed by a more detailed consideration of the possibility that alternating selective forces may share this function. The forces that maintain heterozygosity can be divided into two major categories, those.."
110	Dennis1995.PDF	"Dennis, B. et al. 1995. Nonlinear demographic dynamics: mathematical models, statistical methods, and biological experiments. Ecological Monographs 65:261-282"	22	"Our approach to testing nonlinear population theory is to connect rigorously mathematical models with data by means of statistical methods for nonlinear time series. We begin by deriving a biologically based demographic model. The mathematical analysis identifies boundaries in parameter space where stable equilibria bifurcate to periodic 2-cy- cles and aperiodic motion on invariant loops. The statistical analysis, based on a stochastic version of the demographic model, provides procedures for parameter estimation, hypothesis testing, and model evaluation. Experiments using the flour beetle Tribolium yield the time series data. A three-dimensional map of larval, pupal, and adult numbers forecasts four possible population behaviors: extinction, equilibria, periodicities, and aperiodic motion including chaos. This study documents the nonlinear prediction of periodic 2-cycles in laboratory cultures of Tribolium and represents a new interdisciplinary approach to un- derstanding nonlinear ecological dynamics."
111	Dennis1996.pdf	"Dennis, B. 1996. Discussion: Should Ecologists Become Bayesians ? Ecological Applications 6:1095-1103"	9	"Bayesian statistics involve substantial changes in the methods and philosophy of science. Before adopting Bayesian approaches, ecologists should consider carefully whether or not scientific understanding will be enhanced. Frequentist statistical methods, while imperfect, have made an unquestioned contribution to scientific progress and are a workhorse of day-to-day research. Bayesian statistics, by contrast, have a largely untested track record. The papers in this special section on Bayesian statistics exemplify the difficulties inherent in making convincing scientific arguments with Bayesian reasoning."
112	Deutsch2008.pdf	"Deutsch, C.A et al. 2008. Impacts of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:6668-6672"	5	"The impact of anthropogenic climate change on terrestrial organisms is often predicted to increase with latitude, in parallel with the rate of warming. Yet the biological impact of rising temperatures also depends on the physiological sensitivity of organisms to temperature change. We integrate empirical fitness curves describing the thermal tolerance of terrestrial insects from around the world with the projected geographic distribution of climate change for the next century to estimate the direct impact of warming on insect fitness across latitude. The results show that warming in the tropics, although relatively small in magnitude, is likely to have the most deleterious consequences because tropical insects are relatively sensitive to temperature change and are currently living very close to their optimal temperature. In contrast, species at higher latitudes have broader thermal tolerance and are living in climates that are currently cooler than their physiological optima, so that warming may even enhance their fitness. Available thermal tolerance data for several vertebrate taxa exhibit similar patterns, suggesting that these results are general for terrestrial ectotherms. Our analyses imply that, in the absence of ameliorating factors such as migration and adaptation, the greatest extinction risks from global warming may be in the tropics, where biological diversity is also greatest."
113	Diamond1975.pdf	"Diamond, J.M. 1975. The island dilemma: Lessons of modern biogeographic studies for the design of natural reserves. Biological Conservation 7:129-146"	18	"A system of natural reserves, each surrounded by altered habitat, resembles a system of islands from the point of view of species restricted to natural habitats. Recent advances in island biogeography may provide a detailed basis for understanding what to expect of such a system of reserves. The main conclusions are as follows: The number of species that a reserve can hold at equilibrium is a function of its area and its isolation. Larger reserves, and reserves located close to other reserves, can hold more species. If most of the area of a habitat is destroyed, and a fraction of the area is saved as a reserve, the reserve will initially contain more species than it can hold at equilibrium. The excess will gradually go extinct. The smaller the reserve, the higher will be the extinction rates. Estimates of these extinction rates for bird and mammal species have recently become available in a few cases. Different species require different minimum areas to have a reasonable chance of survival. Some geometric design principles are suggested in order to optimise the function of reserves in saving species."
114	Diaz2004.pdf	Diaz S. et al. 2004. The plant traits that drive ecosystems: Evidence from three continents. Journal of Vegetation Science 15:295-304	10	"Question: A set of easily-measured ('soft') plant traits has been identified as potentially useful predictors of ecosystem functioning in previous studies. Here we aimed to discover whether the screening techniques remain operational in widely contrasted circumstances, to test for the existence of axes of variation in the particular sets of traits, and to test for their links with 'harder' traits of proven importance to ecosystem functioning. Location: central-western Argentina, central England, northern upland Iran, and north-eastern Spain. Recurrent patterns of ecological specialization: Through ordination of a matrix of 640 vascular plant taxa by 12 standardized traits, we detected similar patterns of specialization in the four floras. The first PCA axis was identified as an axis of resource capture, usage and release. PCA axis 2 appeared to be a size-related axis. Individual PCA for each country showed that the same traits remained valuable as predictors of resource capture and utilization in all of them, despite their major differences in climate, biogeography and land-use. The results were not significantly driven by particular taxa: the main traits determining PCA axis 1 were very similar in eudicotyledons and monocotyledons and Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae. Links between recurrent suites of 'soft' traits and 'hard' traits: The validity of PCA axis 1 as a key predictor of resource capture and utilization was tested by comparisons between this axis and values of more rigorously established predictors ('hard' traits) for the floras of Argentina and England. PCA axis 1 was correlated with variation in relative growth rate, leaf nitrogen content, and litter decomposition rate. It also coincided with palatability to model generalist herbivores. Therefore, location on PCA axis 1 can be linked to major ecosystem processes in those habitats where the plants are dominant. Conclusion: We confirm the existence at the global scale of a major axis of evolutionary specialization, previously recognised in several local floras. This axis reflects a fundamental trade-off between rapid acquisition of resources and conservation of resources within well-protected tissues. These major trends of specialization were maintained across different environmental situations (including differences in the proximate causes of low productivity, i.e. drought or mineral nutrient deficiency). The trends were also consistent across floras and major phylogenetic groups, and were linked with traits directly relevant to ecosystem processes."
115	Dirzo2014.pdf	"Dirzo, R. et al. 2014. Defaunation in the Anthropocene. Science 345:401-406"	6	"We live amid a global wave of anthropogenically driven biodiversity loss: species and population extirpations and, critically, declines in local species abundance. Particularly, human impacts on animal biodiversity are an under-recognized form of global environmental change. Among terrestrial vertebrates, 322 species have become extinct since 1500, and populations of the remaining species show 25% average decline in abundance. Invertebrate patterns are equally dire: 67% of monitored populations show 45% mean abundance decline. Such animal declines will cascade onto ecosystem functioning and human well-being. Much remains unknown about this ""Anthropocene defaunation""; these knowledge gaps hinder our capacity to predict and limit defaunation impacts. Clearly, however, defaunation is both a pervasive component of the planet's sixth mass extinction and also a major driver of global ecological change."
116	Dray2008.pdf	"Dray, S.; Legendre, P. 2008. Testing the species traits environment relationships: The fourth-corner problem revisited. Ecology 89:3400-3412"	13	"Functional ecology aims at determining the relationships between species traits and environmental variables in order to better understand biological processes in ecosystems. From a methodological point of view, this biological objective calls for a method linking three data matrix tables: a table L with abundance or presence-absence values for species at a series of sites, a table R with variables describing the environmental conditions of the sites, and a table Q containing traits (e.g., morphological or behavioral attributes) of the species. Ten years ago, the fourth-corner method was proposed to measure and test the relationships between species traits and environmental variables using tables R, L, and Q simultaneously. In practice, this method is rarely used. The major reasons for this lack of interest are the restriction of the original method and program to presence-absence data in L and to the analysis of a single trait and a single environmental variable at a time. Moreover, ecologists often have problems in choosing a permutation model among the four originally proposed. In this paper, we revisit the fourth-corner method and propose improvements to the original approach. First, we present an extension to measure the link between species traits and environmental variables when the ecological community is described by abundance data. A new multivariate fourth-corner statistic is also proposed. Then, using numerical simulations, we discuss and evaluate the existing testing procedures. A new two-step testing procedure is presented. We hope that these elements will help ecologists use the best possible methodology to analyze this type of ecological problem."
117	Drent1980.pdf	"Drent, R.; Daan, S. 1980. The prudent parent: energetic adjustments in avian breeding. Ardea 68:225-252"	28	"1. Energetics of reproduction in birds is reviewed with the question in mind how the parent adjusts its effort in relation to prevailing environmental conditions in order to maximize the output of young in its lifetime. Emphasis is on proximate controls, rather than ultimate factors measurable in terms of adult survival and recruitment of young. 2. The decision to breed or not to breed is clearly related to body condition of the female, presumably because of the implications this has for survival. 3. Laying date and clutch size are likewise under the influence of female condition and can hence be modified by experiments involving supplementary feeding. Natural variation in these features may often be related to territory quality. 4. How the bird decides whether or not to commence a second brood is not clear, but in the Great Tit the habitat-related difference in incidence of second broods is functionally understandable when survival probabilities of birds at different times are considered. 5. A distinction is made between a ""capital"" and ""income"" model for translatting rates of change of female body condition into appropriate decisions on laying date and clutch size and experiments are suggested that discriminate between the two. 6. Lack's view that brood size is in an evolutionary sense adjusted in order to balance food requirement and foraging capacity of the parents is accepted, and growth rates in nidicolous birds are analysed to ascertain if a finer adjustment exists superimposed on the integer steps of brood adjustment. Critical for this analysis are groups of birds where broods of one are common, since only in these circumstances is growth adjustment the only strategy open to the parents. In common with other animals, growth rate is related to mature body size but within a category of adult weight clear examples can be found for retardation of growth rate in pelecaniform and charadriiform species with singleton broods. 7. Since daily energy requirement is related to nestling size and growth rate, retardation of growth is explicable as a strategy only in terms of reducing the daily commitment of the parents, not reducing the total cost of producing a nestling. 8. An additional economy in growth is to reduce the contribution of fat to the nestling body. 9. Implied in Lack's view of brood size is a limitation of parental foraging capacity, and the last section of the paper is devoted to exploration of the proximate factors delimiting what Royama terms the optimal working capacity of parents feeding young. Observations of parent starlings confronted with manipulated brood size suggest a limit on the time that can be devoted to energetically extravagant flight activity, rather than a shortage of absolute time. Beyond the limit to which stressed parents can be made to fly, body weight declines. 10. Preliminary data on energy metabolized daily by parents confronted with large broods conforms to the simplified view that parental effort on a sustained basis equates to energy mobilization equivalent to 4 B.M.R. units and it is suggested that this level of energy expenditure represents a proximal decision substrate for determining the optimal working capacity of the parent. 11. The paper ends with a plea for more research on the proximate controls of avian reproduction, and calls attention to the central importance of the protein bank to parental body condition."
118	Duffy2003.pdf	"Duffy E.J.; Richardson, P.J.; Canuel, E. A. 2003. Grazer diversity effects on ecosystem functioning in seagrass beds. Ecology letters 6:637-645"	9	No Abstract
119	Duffy2002.pdf	"Duffy, E.J. 2002. Biodiversity and ecosystem function: the consumer connection. Oikos 99:201-219"	19	"Proposed links between biodiversity and ecosystem processes have generated intense interest and controversy in recent years. With few exceptions, however, empirical studies have focused on grassland plants and laboratory aquatic microbial systems, whereas there has been little attention to how changing animal diversity may influence ecosystem processes. Meanwhile, a separate research tradition has demonstrated strong top-down forcing in many systems, but has considered the role of diversity in these processes only tangentially. Integration of these research directions is necessary for more complete understanding in both areas. Several considerations suggest that changing diversity in multi-level food webs can have important ecosystem effects that can be qualitatively different than those mediated by plants. First, extinctions tend to be biased by trophic level: higher-level consumers are less diverse, less abundant, and under stronger anthropogenic pressure on average than wild plants, and thus face greater risk of extinction. Second, unlike plants, consumers often have impacts on ecosystems disproportionate to their abundance. Thus, an early consequence of declining diversity will often be skewed trophic structure, potentially reducing top-down influence. Third, where predators remain abundant, declining diversity at lower trophic levels may change effectiveness of predation and penetrance of trophic cascades by reducing trait diversity and the potential for compensation among species within a level. The mostly indirect evidence available provides some support for this prediction. Yet effects of changing animal diversity on functional processes have rarely been tested experimentally. Evaluating impacts of biodiversity loss on ecosystem function requires expanding the scope of current experimental research to multi-level food webs. A central challenge to doing so, and to evaluating the importance of trophic cascades specifically, is understanding the distribution of interaction strengths within natural communities and how they change with community composition. Although topology of most real food webs is extremely complex, it is not at all clear how much of this complexity translates to strong dynamic linkages that influence aggregate biomass and community composition. Finally, there is a need for more detailed data on patterns of species loss from real ecosystems (community  disassembly  rules)."
120	Dushoff2004.pdf	"Dushoff, J. et al. 2004. Dynamical resonance can account for seasonality of influenza epidemics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101:16915-16916"	2	"Influenza incidence exhibits strong seasonal fluctuations in temperate regions throughout the world, concentrating the mortality and morbidity burden of the disease into a few months each year. The cause of influenza's seasonality has remained elusive. Here we show that the large oscillations in incidence may be caused by undetectably small seasonal changes in the influenza transmission rate that are amplified by dynamical resonance."
121	Dynesius2000.pdf	"Dynesius, M.; Jansson, R. 2000. Evolutionary consequences of changes in species' geographical distributions driven by Milankovitch climate oscillations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97:9115-9120"	6	"We suggest Milankovitch climate oscillations as a common cause for geographical patterns in species diversity, species' range sizes, polyploidy, and the degree of specialization and dispersability of organisms. Periodical changes in the orbit of the Earth cause climatic changes termed Milankovitch oscillations, leading to large changes in the size and location of species' geographical distributions. We name these recurrent changes ""orbitally forced species' range dynamics"" (ORD). The magnitude of ORD varies in space and time. ORD decreases gradual speciation (attained by gradual changes over many generations), increases range sizes and the proportions of species formed by polyploidy and other ""abrupt"" mechanisms, selects against specialization, and favor dispersability. Large ORD produces species prone neither to extinction nor gradual speciation. ORD increases with latitude. This produces latitudinal patterns, among them the gradient in species diversity and species' range sizes (Rapoport's rule). Differential ORD and its evolutionary consequences call for new conservation strategies on the regional to global scale."
122	Earn2000a.pdf	"Earn, D.J.; Levin, S.A. Rohani, P. 2000a. Coherence and conservation. Science 290:1360-1364"	5	"A principal aim of current conservation policy is to reduce the impact of habitat fragmentation. Conservation corridors may achieve this goal by facilitating movement among isolated patches, but there is a risk that increased connectivity could synchronize local population fluctuations (causing coherent oscillations) and thereby increase the danger of global extinction. We identify general conditions under which populations can or cannot undergo coherent oscillations, and we relate these conditions to local and global extinction probabilities. We suggest a simple method to explore the potential success of conservation corridors and, more generally, any manipulations of dispersal patterns that aim to protect threatened species or control pests."
123	Earn2002.pdf	"Earn, D.J.D.; Dushoff, J.; Levin, S.A. 2002. Ecology and evolution of the flu. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17:334-340"	7	"Influenza (flu) is a common infectious disease, but it is unusual in that the primary timescales for disease dynamics (epidemics) and viral evolution (new variants) are roughly the same. Recently, extraordinarily reliable phylogenetic reconstructions of flu virus evolution have been made using samples from both extant and extinct strains. In addition, because of their public health importance, flu epidemics have been monitored throughout the period over which the phylogenetic trees extend. In parallel with this empirical work, theoretical ecologists have developed mathematical and computational models that elucidate many properties of multistrain systems. In the future, to unravel and interpret the complex interactions between ecological and evolutionary forces on flu dynamics, the documented evolution of the virus must be related to the observed population dynamics of the disease. New theoretical insights are also required to simplify model structures and facilitate predictions that can be tested with accessible data."
124	Earn2000.pdf	"Earn, D.J.D. 2000. A simple model for complex dynamical transitions in epidemics. Science 287:667-670"	4	"Dramatic changes in patterns of epidemics have been observed throughout this century. For childhood infectious diseases such as measles, the major transitions are between regular cycles and irregular, possibly chaotic epidemics, and from regionally synchronized oscillations to complex, spatially incoherent epidemics. A simple model can explain both kinds of transitions as the consequences of changes in birth and vaccination rates. Measles is a natural ecological system that exhibits different dynamical transitions at different times and places, yet all of these transitions can be predicted as bifurcations of a single nonlinear model."
125	Eberhardt1991.pdf	"Eberhardt, L .L .; Thomas, J .M . 2008. Designing Environmental Field Studies. Ecological Monographs 61:53-73"	21	"Field experiments in ecological and environmental research usually do not meet the criteria for modem experimental design. Subsampling is often mistakenly sub- stituted for true replication, and sample sizes are too small for adequate power in tests of significance. In many cases, field-study objectives may be better served by various kinds of sampling procedures, even though the resulting inferences will be weaker than those obtainable through controlled experimentation. The present paper provides a classification and description of methods for designing environmental studies, with emphasis on techniques as yet little used in ecology. Eight categories of techniques for field studies are defined in terms of the nature of control exerted by the observer, by the presence or absence of a perturbation, and by the domain of study. The first two categories include classical experimental approaches, replicated and unrepli- cated. Sampling for modelling provides efficient designs for estimating parameters in a specified model. Intervention analysis measures the effect of a known perturbation in a time series. Observational studies contrast selected groups from a population, while ana- lytical sampling provides comparisons over the entire population. Descriptive survey sam- pling estimates means or totals over an entire population, while sampling for pattern deals with spatial patterns over a selected region. We propose that the statistical concept of a ""superpopulation"" may be useful in ecology, and that it may be desirable to approach community and ecosystem studies in a sampling framework, with experimentation used for a fairly narrow range of subsidiary investigations. Much more attention to processes for drawing inferences about cause and effect is needed, in any case."
126	Ehlrich1967.pdf	"Ehrlich P.R; Birch L.C. 1967. The ""balance of nature"" and ""population control"". The American Naturalist 101:97-107"	11	"1. The notion that nature is in some sort of ""balance"" with respect to population size, or that populations in general show relatively little fluctuation in size, is demonstrably false. 2. The thesis of Hairston, Smith, and Slobodkin that ""populations of producers, carnivores, and decomposers are limited by their respective resources in the classical density-dependent fashion"" is based on a series of assumptions about these trophic levels which are, in all probability, false. Even if the assumptions are true, this conclusion does not follow from them. 3. A realistic basis for building models dealing with the changes of numbers in populations would include the following propositions: a. All populations are constantly changing in size. b. The environments of all organisms are constantly changing. c. Local populations must be recognized and investigated if changes in population size are to be understood. d. The influence on population size of various components of environment varies with population density, among species, among local populations, and through time."
127	Ehrlich1964.pdf	"Ehrlich, P.R.; Raven, P.H. 1964. Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Evolution 18:586-608"	23	"The reciprocal evolutionary relationships of butterflies and their food plants have been examined on the basis of an extensive survey of patterns of plant utilization and information on factors affecting food plant choice. The evolution of secondary plant substances and the stepwise evolutionary responses to these by phytophagous organisms have clearly been the dominant factors in the evolution of butterflies and other phytophagous groups. Furthermore, these secondary plant substances have probably been critical in the evolution of angiosperm subgroups and perhaps of the angiosperms themselves. The examination of broad patterns of coevolution permits several levels of predictions and shows promise as a route to the understanding of community evolution. Little information useful for the reconstruction of phylogenies is supplied. It is apparent that reciprocal selective responses have been greatly underrated as a factor in the origination of organic diversity. The paramount importance of plant-herbivore interactions in generating terrestrial diversity is suggested. For instance, viewed in this framework the rich diversity of tropical communities may be traced in large part to the hospitality of warm climates toward poikilothermal phytophagous insects."
128	Ehrlich1971.pdf	"Ehrlich, P.R.; Holdren, J.P. 1971. Impact of Population Growth. Science 171:1212-1217"	6	No Abstract
129	Ellner2001.pdf	"Ellner, S.P. 2001. Habitat structure and population persistence in an experimental community. Nature 412:538-543"	6	"Understanding spatial population dynamics is fundamental for many questions in ecology and conservation. Many theoretical mechanisms have been proposed whereby spatial structure can promote population persistence, in particular for exploiter-victim systems (host-parasite/pathogen, predator-prey) whose interactions are inherently oscillatory and therefore prone to extinction of local populations. Experiments have confirmed that spatial structure can extend persistence, but it has rarely been possible to identify the specific mechanisms involved. Here we use a model-based approach to identify the effects of spatial population processes in experimental systems of bean plants (Phaseolus lunatus), herbivorous mites (Tetranychus urticae) and predatory mites (Phytoseiulus persimilis). On isolated plants, and in a spatially undivided experimental system of 90 plants, prey and predator populations collapsed; however, introducing habitat structure allowed long-term persistence. Using mechanistic models, we determine that spatial population structure did not contribute to persistence, and spatially explicit models are not needed. Rather, habitat structure reduced the success of predators at locating prey outbreaks, allowing between-plant asynchrony of local population cycles due to random colonization events."
130	Elser2000.pdf	Elser J.J. 2000. Biological stoichiometry from genes to ecosystems. Ecology letters 3:540-550	11	"Ecological stoichiometry is the study of the balance of multiple chemical elements in ecological interactions. This paper reviews recent findings in this area and seeks to broaden the stoichiometric concept for use in evolutionary studies, in integrating ecological dynamics with cellular and genetic mechanisms, and in developing a unified means for studying diverse organisms in diverse habitats. This broader approach would then beconsider  �biological stoichiometry . Evidence supporting a hypothesised connection between the C:N:P stoichiometry of an organism and its growth rate (th growth rate hypothesis  ) is reviewed . Various data indicate that rapidly growing organisms commonly have low biomass C : P and N : P ratios . Evidence is then discussed suggesting that low C : P and N : P ratios in rapidly growing organisms reflect increased allocation to P - rich ribosomal RNA (rRNA) , as rapid protein synthesis by ribosomes is required to support fast growth . Indeed , diverse organisms (bacteria , copepods , fishes , others) exhibit increased RNA levels when growing actively . This implies that evolutionary processes that generate , directly or indirectly , variation in a major life history trait (specific growth rate) have consequences for ecological dynamics due to their effects on organismal elemental composition . Genetic mechanisms by which organisms generate high RNA , high growth rate phenotypes are discussed next , focusing on the structure and organisation of the ribosomal RNA genes (th rDNA ' ') . In particular , published studies of a variety of taxa suggest an association between growth rate and variation in the length and content of the intergenic spacer (IGS) region of the rDNA tandem repeat unit . In particular , under conditions favouring increased growth or yield , the number of repeat units   �nhancers ' ') increases (and the IGS increases in length) , and transcription rates of rRNA increase . In addition , there is evidence in the literature that increased numbers of copies of rDNA genes are associated with increased growth and production . Thus , a combination of genetic mechanisms may be responsible for establishing the growth potential , and thus the RNA allocation and C : N : P composition , of an organism . Furthermore , various processes , during both sexual and asexual reproduction , can generate variation in the rDNA to provide the raw material for selection and to generate ecologically significant variation in C : N : P stoichiometry . This leads us to hypothesize that the continuous generation of such variation may also play a role in how species interactions develop in ecosystems under different conditions of energy input and nutrient supply . During this century , biology has become increasingly sophisticated and predictive . With increasing sophistica - tion has come increasing specialisation (Maienschein 1991) . Narrowing of research focus occurs not only at particular levels of organisation (e . g . ecosystem science , molecular genetics) but also within the confines of particular model organisms (e . g . Drosophila , Arabidopsis) or of particular habitats (e . g . lakes , temperate forests) . As a result , knowledge is increasingly fragmented and it has become more difficult to connect disparate areas of"
131	Emlen1977.pdf	"Emlen, S.T. 1977. Ecology, Sexual Selection, and Evolution of Mating Systems. Science 197:215-223"	9	"Mating systems (1) were first dis-cussed in evolutionary terms by Darwin (2). Since then, major developments in genetic theory have allowed a better un-derstanding of sex ratios, sexual di-morphism, and differential patterns of parental care (3-7). Important mile-stones toward an ecological understand-ing of mating systems have also been reached (8-16). Nevertheless, attempts at synthesizing natural history data into a unified theory of mating system evolu-tion have lagged behind the development of population genetics theory. One factor hindering development of a sociobiological framework of mating sys-tem theory has been a recurring tenden-cy for field workers to search for and to discuss ""adaptiveness"" in the context of the survival or well-being of the popu-lation or species. To understand mating systems, we must abandon species-or group-selection viewpoints and return to the evolutionary tenet of natural selec-tion operating at the level of the individ-ual genome (17). Fitness, in genetic theory, measures the reproductive success of an individual (or a genotype) measured relative to the reproductive success of other individuals (or genotypes) in the same or in other populations. Thus, we should expect a strong competitive element in many as-pects of reproductive behavior. Darwin was fully aware of this intraspecific com-petition when he introduced the theory of sexual selection (2). Stated simply, when one sex becomes a limiting factor for the other, the result is an increase in intrasexual competition among members of the available sex for access to mates 15 JULY 1977 of the limiting sex ""shortage"" of one se the sexual selection. relatively slight in rr while it is intense in societies. A better u causes of sexual sele to the development o theory. What accounts fc tensities of sexual se ferent species and, f populations of the sai pothesize that one im ability of a portion a control the access oJ mates. This control i the physical herding and the physical excli bers of the same sex or indirect, by contrc are critical either for for successful reprod the degree of control the greater the resulti"
132	Emlen1982.pdf	"Emlen, S.T. 1982. The Evolution of Helping. I. An Ecological Constraints Model. The American Naturalist 119:29-39"	11	"The ecological factors underlying the evolution of helping behavior in birds and mammals are examined. I argue that a necessary first step for the evolution of cooperative breeding is a substructuring of the population into small, stable, social units; in most known cases these are extended-family units. The ecological conditions leading to the development of such units are explored, and a general model is presented that emphasizes ecological constraints that limit the possibility of personal, independent breeding. When severe constraints occur, selection will favor delayed dispersal and continued retention of grown offspring within their natal units. Differing proximate factors can be responsible for limiting the option of personal reproduction. In stable, predictable environments where marginal habitat is scarce, high population density and resulting habitat saturation can lead to a severe shortage of territory openings (Brown 1974; Koenig and Pitelka 1981). This decreases the chance for independent establishment by new breeders. In variable and unpredictable environments, erratic changes in the carrying capacity can create the functional equivalents of breeding openings and closures. During harsh years, the cost of successfully reproducing can be magnified to prohibitive levels. When the chance of successful reproduction is sufficiently restricted, for either reason, selection will favor individuals remaining as nonbreeders within their natal groups. In essence, grown offspring remain at home only when the cost of doing otherwise is prohibitive. This ecological constraints model predicts that the frequency of occurrence of nonbreeders will vary directly with (1) the degree of difficulty in becoming established as a breeder (for species in stable, saturated, habitats), and (2) the level of environmental harshness (for species in erratic, unpredictable habitats). Available evidence is presented for the acorn woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus (representing 1), and the white-fronted bee-eater, Merops bullockoides (representing 2), in a preliminary test of the predictions."
133	Engen1998.pdf	"Engen, S.; Bakke, O.; Islam, A. 1998. Demographic and Environmental Stochasticity-Concepts and Definitions. Biometrics 54:840-846"	7	"General definitions of demographic and environmental variances as well as demographic covariance are given from first principles. The sum of the environmental variance and the demographic covariance is the covariance between two individuals' contributions to the population growth within a year and corresponds to the coefficient of x2 in the expression for the variance of the change in population size. Hence, this coefficient may actually be negative. The demographic variance is the variance among individuals. It is shown that the definitions are consistent with use of these terms in models with additive effects and in diffusion approximations to population processes. The connection to classical birth and death processes, in which the environmental variance and demographic covariance is always zero, is discussed. The concepts are illustrated by some stochastic simulations."
134	Estes1998.pdf	"Estes, J.A. et al. 1998. Killer whale predation on sea otters linking coastal with oceanic ecosystems. Science 282:473-476"	4	No Abstract
135	Estes2011.pdf	"Estes, J.A.; Terborgh, J.; Brashares, J.S. 2011. Trophic downgrading of planet Earth. Science 333:301-306"	6	"Until recently, large apex consumers were ubiquitous across the globe and had been for millions of years. The loss of these animals may be humankind's most pervasive influence on nature. Although such losses are widely viewed as an ethical and aesthetic problem, recent research reveals extensive cascading effects of their disappearance in marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems worldwide. This empirical work supports long-standing theory about the role of top-down forcing in ecosystems but also highlights the unanticipated impacts of trophic cascades on processes as diverse as the dynamics of disease, wildfire, carbon sequestration, invasive species, and biogeochemical cycles. These findings emphasize the urgent need for interdisciplinary research to forecast the effects of trophic downgrading on process, function, and resilience in global ecosystems."
136	Fahrig2003.pdf	"Fahrig, L. 2003. Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 34:487-515"	29	"The literature on effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity is huge. It is also very diverse, with different authors measuring fragmentation in different ways and, as a consequence, drawing different conclusions regarding both the magnitude and direction of its effects. Habitat fragmentation is usually defined as a landscape-scale process involving both habitat loss and the breaking apart of habitat. Results of empirical studies of habitat fragmentation are often difficult to interpret because (a) many researchers measure fragmentation at the patch scale, not the landscape scale and (b) most researchers measure fragmentation in ways that do not distinguish between habitat loss and habitat fragmentation per se, i.e., the breaking apart of habitat after controlling for habitat loss. Empirical studies to date suggest that habitat loss has large, consistently negative effects on biodiversity. Habitat fragmentation per se has much weaker effects on biodiversity that are at least as likely to be positive as negative. Therefore, to correctly interpret the influence of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity, the effects of these two components of fragmentation must be measured independently. More studies of the independent effects of habitat loss and fragmentation per se are needed to determine the factors that lead to positive versus negative effects of fragmentation per se. I suggest that the term ""fragmentation"" should be reserved for the breaking apart of habitat, independent of habitat loss."
137	Fahrig2013.pdf	"Fahrig, L. 2013. Rethinking patch size and isolation effects: the habitat amount hypothesis. Journal of Biogeography 40:1649-1663"	15	"I challenge (1) the assumption that habitat patches are natural units of measurement for species richness, and (2) the assumption of distinct effects of habitat patch size and isolation on species richness. I propose a simpler view of the relationship between habitat distribution and species richness, the   habitat amount hypothesis  , and I suggest ways of testing it. The habitat amount hypothesis posits that, for habitat patches in a matrix of non-habitat, the patch size effect and the patch isolation effect are driven mainly by a single underlying process, the sample area effect. The hypothesis predicts that species richness in equal-sized sample sites should increase with the total amount of habitat in the   local landscape   of the sample site, where the local landscape is the area within an appropriate distance of the sample site. It also predicts that species richness in a sample site is independent of the area of the particular patch in which the sample site is located (its   local patch  ), except insofar as the area of that patch contributes to the amount of habitat in the local landscape of the sample site. The habitat amount hypothesis replaces two predictor variables, patch size and isolation, with a single predictor variable, habitat amount, when species richness is analysed for equal-sized sample sites rather than for unequal-sized habitat patches. Studies to test the hypothesis should ensure that   habitat   is correctly defined, and the spatial extent of the local landscape is appropriate, for the species group under consideration. If supported, the habitat amount hypothesis would mean that to predict the relationship between habitat distribution and species richness: (1) distinguishing between patch-scale and landscape-scale habitat effects is unnecessary; (2) distinguishing between patch size effects and patch isolation effects is unnecessary; (3) considering habitat configuration independent of habitat amount is unnecessary; and (4) delineating discrete habitat patches is unnecessary."
138	Feder2000.pdf	"Feder, M.E; Bennett, A.F.; Huey, R.B. 2000. Evolutionary physiology 1. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst 31:315-341"	27	"Evolutionary physiology represents an explicit fusion of two com-plementary approaches: evolution and physiology. Stimulated by four major intel-lectual and methodological developments (explicit consideration of diverse evolu-tionary mechanisms, phylogenetic approaches, incorporation of the perspectives and tools of evolutionary genetics and selection studies, and generalization of molecu-lar techniques to exotic organisms), this field achieved prominence during the past decade. It addresses three major questions regarding physiological evolution: (a) What are the historical, ecological, and phylogenetic patterns of physiological evolution? (b) How important are and were each of the known evolutionary processes (natural selection, sexual selection, drift, constraint, genetic coupling/hitchhiking, and oth-ers) in engendering or limiting physiological evolution? and (c) How do the genotype, phenotype, physiological performance, and fitness interact in influencing one another's future values? To answer these questions, evolutionary physiology examines extant and historical variation and diversity, standing genetic and phenotypic variability in populations, and past and ongoing natural selection in the wild. Also, it manipulates genotypes, phenotypes, and environments of evolving populations in the laboratory and field. Thus, evolutionary physiology represents the infusion of paradigms, techniques, and approaches of evolutionary biology, genetics, and systematics into physiology. The reciprocal infusion of physiological approaches into evolutionary biology and systematics can likewise have great value and is a future goal."
139	Felsenstein1981.pdf	"Felsenstein, J. 1981. Skepticism towards Santa Rosalia, or why are there so few kinds of animals? Evolution 35:124-138"	15	"A model of speciation has been constructed involving two loci under natural selection in two subpopulations, with different alleles adapted to the different subpopulations. Progress toward speciation in this model consists of association of a third locus, at which there is assortative mating, with the original two loci. Cases can be found in which speciation cannot occur. The evolutionary force acting against speciation turns out to be recombination, which acts to randomize the association between the prezygotic isolating mechanism (assortative mating) and the adaptations to the two environments. This model suggests that there is an important distinction between two kinds of speciation. One involves speciation by substitution of the same alleles in the two nascent species, the other by substitution of different alleles. Only in the latter case does recombination act as a force retarding or blocking speciation."
140	Felsenstein1985.pdf	"Felsenstein, J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. The American Naturalist 125:1"	1	"Comparative studies of the relationship between two phenotypes, or between a phenotype and an environment, are frequently carried out by invalid statistical methods. Most regression, correlation, and contingency table methods, including nonparametric methods, assume that the points are drawn independently from a common distribution. When species are taken from a branching phylogeny, they are manifestly nonindependent. Use of a statistical method that assumes independence will cause overstatement of the significance in hypothesis tests. Some illustrative examples of these phenomena have been given, and limitations of previous proposals of ways to correct for the nonindependence have been discussed. A method of correcting for the phylogeny has been proposed. It requires that we know both the tree topology and the branch lengths, and that we be willing to allow the characters to be modeled by Brownian motion on a linear scale. Given these conditions, the phylogeny specifies a set of contrasts among species, contrasts that are statistically independent and can be used in regression or correlation studies. The considerable barriers to making practical use of this technique have been discussed."
141	Firestein2012.pdf	"Firestein, S. 2012. What science wants to know? Scientific American"	1	An impenetrable mountain of facts can obscure the deeper questions
142	Foley2005.pdf	"Foley, J. et al. 2005. Global consequences of land use. Science 309:570-574"	5	"Land use has generally been considered a local environmental issue, but it is becoming a force of global importance. Worldwide changes to forests, farmlands, waterways, and air are being driven by the need to provide food, fiber, water, and shelter to more than six billion people. Global croplands, pastures, plantations, and urban areas have expanded in recent decades, accompanied by large increases in energy, water, and fertilizer consumption, along with considerable losses of biodiversity. Such changes in land use have enabled humans to appropriate an increasing share of the planet's resources, but they also potentially undermine the capacity of ecosystems to sustain food production, maintain freshwater and forest resources, regulate climate and air quality, and ameliorate infectious diseases. We face the challenge of managing trade-offs between immediate human needs and maintaining the capacity of the biosphere to provide goods and services in the long term."
143	Forman1995.pdf	"Forman, R.T.T. 1995. Some general principles of landscape and regional ecology. Landscape Ecology 10:133-142"	10	"A dozen general principles of landscape and regional ecology are delineated to stimulate their evaluation, refinement, and usage. Brief background material and a few references provide entrkes into the subjects. The principles are presented in four groups: landscapes and regions; patches and corridors; mosaics; and applications. Most appear useful in solving a wide range of environmental and societal land-use issues"
144	Fretwell1970.pdf	Fretwell S.D. & Lucas H.L. 1970. On territorial behavior and others factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. I. Theoretical development. Acta Biothereotica 19:16-36	21	A theoretical model of habitat occupancy by birds based upon expected habitat suitability (defined as average fitness). Most suitable habitats are expected to fill until density dependent declines in suitability cause new individuals to settle in the next most suitable. Defines the ideal free and the ideal dominance distributions.
145	Friedenberg2003.pdf	"Friedenberg, N.A. 2003. Experimental evolution of dispersal in spatiotemporally variable microcosms. Ecology Letters 6:953-959"	7	"The world is an uncertain place. Individuals fates vary from place to place and from time to time. Natural selection in unpredictable environments should favour individuals that hedge their bets by dispersing offspring. I confirm this basic prediction using Caenorhabditis elegans in experimental microcosms. My results agree with evolutionary models and correlations found previously between habitat stability and individual dispersal propensity in nature. However, I also find that environmental variation that triggers conditional dispersal behaviour may not impose selection on baseline dispersal rates. These findings imply that an increased rate of disturbance in natural systems has the potential to cause an evolutionary response in the life history of impacted organisms."
146	Fukami2015.pdf	"Fukami, T. 2015. Historical contingency in community assembly : integrating niches, species pools, and priority effects. Annual review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 46:44927"	1	"The order and timing of species immigration during community assembly can affect species abundances at multiple spatial scales.Known as priority ef- fects, these effects cause historical contingency in the structure and function of communities, resulting in alternative stable states, alternative transient states, or compositional cycles. The mechanisms of priority effects fall into two categories, niche preemption and niche modification, and the condi- tions for historical contingency by priority effects can be organized into two groups, those regarding regional species pool properties and those regarding local population dynamics. Specifically, two requirements must be satisfied for historical contingency to occur: The regional pool contains species that can together cause priority effects, and local dynamics are rapid enough for early-arriving species to preempt or modify niches before other species arrive. Organizing current knowledge this way reveals an outstanding key question:How are regional species pools that yield priority effects generated and maintained?"
147	Fussmann2007.pdf	"Fussmann, G.F.; Loreau, M.; Abrams, P.A. 2007. Eco-evolutionary dynamics of communities and ecosystems. Functional Ecology 21:465-477"	13	"1. We review theoretical and empirical studies to identify instances where evolutionary processes significantly affect the dynamics of populations, communities and ecosystems. 2. Early theoretical work on eco-evolutionary dynamics was concerned with the effect of (co)evolution on the stability of two-species predator-prey systems and the occurrence of character displacement in simple competitive systems. Today  s theoretical ecologists are extending this work to study the eco-evolutionary dynamics of multispecies communities and the functioning and evolutionary emergence of ecosystems. 3. In terms of methodology, eco-evolutionary modelling has diversified from simple, locus-based population genetic models to encompass models of clonal selection, quantitative trait dynamics and adaptive dynamics. 4. The few empirical studies on community dynamics that explicitly considered evolutionary processes support the view that evolutionary and ecological dynamics often occur on similar time-scales, and that they co-determine the dynamical behaviour of ecological communities."
148	Gaillard2000.pdf	"Gaillard, J-M. et al. 2000. Temporal variation in fitness components and population dynamics of large herbivores. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 31:367-393"	1	"In large-herbivore populations, environmental variation and density dependence co-occur and have similar effects on various fitness components. Our re- viewaims to quantify the temporal variability of fitness components and examine how that variability affects changes in population growth rates. Regardless of the source of variation, adult female survival shows little year-to-year variation [coefficient of variation (CV <10%)], fecundity of prime-aged females and yearling survival rates showmoderate year-to-year variation (CV<20%), and juvenile survival and fecundity of young females showstrong variation (CV>30%). Old females showsenescence in both survival and reproduction. These patterns of variation are independent of differ- ences in body mass, taxonomic group, and ecological conditions. Differences in levels of maternal care may fine-tune the temporal variation of early survival. The imma- ture stage, despite a low relative impact on population growth rate compared with the adult stage, may be the critical component of population dynamics of large herbivores. Observed differences in temporal variation may be more important than estimated rel- ative sensitivity or elasticity in determining the relative demographic impact of various fitness components. 0066-4162/00/1120-0367$1"
149	Garland1994a.pdf	"Garland, T.; Adolph, S.C. 1994. Why Not To Do 2-Species Comparative-Studies - Limitations on Inferring Adaptation. Physiological Zoology 67:797-828"	0	"It's too easy to come to an adaptive conclusion; say two species differ in some trait which correlates with adaptive change, this could be accidental, about 1/2 the time"
150	Garland1994.pdf	"Garland, T.; Carter, P.A. 1994. Evolutionary physiology. Annual review of physiology 56:579-621"	43	"Evolutionary physiology represents an explicit fusion of two complementary approaches: evolution and physiology. Stimulated by four major intellectual and methodological developments (explicit consideration of diverse evolutionary mechanisms, phylogenetic approaches, incorporation of the perspectives and tools of evolutionary genetics and selection studies, and generalization of molecular techniques to exotic organisms), this field achieved prominence during the past decade. It addresses three major questions regarding physiological evolution: (a) What are the historical, ecological, and phylogenetic patterns of physiological evolution? (b) How important are and were each of the known evolutionary processes (natural selection, sexual selection, drift, constraint, genetic coupling/hitchhiking, and others) in engendering or Limiting physiological evolution? and(c) How do the genotype, phenotype, physiological performance, and fitness interact in influencing one another's future values? To answer these questions, evolutionary physiology examines extant and historical variation and diversity, standing genetic and phenotypic variability in populations, and past and ongoing natural selection in the wild. Also, it manipulates genotypes, phenotypes, and environments of evolving populations in the laboratory and field. Thus, evolutionary physiology represents the infusion of paradigms, techniques, and approaches of evolutionary biology, genetics, and systematics into physiology. The reciprocal infusion of physiological approaches into evolutionary biology and systematics can Likewise have great value and is a future goal"
151	Gaston2000.pdf	"Gaston, K.J. 2000. Global patterns in biodiversity. Nature 405:220-227"	8	"To a first approximation, the distribution of biodiversity across the Earth can be described in terms of a relatively small number of broad-scale spatial patterns. Although these patterns are increasingly well documented, understanding why they exist constitutes one of the most significant intellectual challenges to ecologists and biogeographers. Theory is, however, developing rapidly, improving in its internal consistency, and more readily subjected to empirical challenge."
152	Gause1934.pdf	"Gause, G.F. 1934. Experimental Analysis of Vito Volterra'S Mathematical Theory of the Struggle for Existence. Science 79:16-17"	2	Historical experiments with Paramecium and Didinium for competition and predation
153	Gause1936.pdf	"Gause G.F., Smaragdova N.P., Witt A.A. 1936. Further studies of interaction between predators and prey. The Journal of Animal Ecology 5:1�18"	18	"In this paper an account is given of our recent experimental and mathematical investigations on the nature of interaction between predators and prey, which have been carried out along three different lines. Firstly, some new experimental data are presented dealing with a population of two species of mites, one of which, Cheyletus eruditus, feeds upon the other, Aleuroglyphus agilis. In these experiments an analysis is made of the effect of properties of the environment upon interaction by keeping the mites in various nutritive substances (wheat flour, millet, and semoletta). It is found that the predator is much more efficient in the open millet or semoletta environment, where the prey is more available than in the wheat flour. Concerning the true nature of interaction, it is concluded that under the environmental conditions studied in this work the interaction between the two species of mites forms a relaxation interaction, so that periodic oscillations are prevented after one ``cycle''. But when an immigration is allowed such oscillations immediately arise. Some data are also given on age distribution and its variation in the course of the interaction. Secondly, the classical case of relaxation interaction presented by two Infusoria, Didinium nasutum as predator and Paramecium caudatum as prey, is studied in detail from a mathematical viewpoint. An adequate differential equation of interaction between these two species based on experimentally observed biological properties of this system is formulated and leads to relaxation of interaction between them, which has been actually observed in our previous experimental investigations. The third line of study is devoted to interaction between Paramecium bursaria and yeast cells, Saccharomyces exiguus. New experimental data are given showing, in accordance with previous observations, the possibility of continuous periodic fluctuations resulting from the very process of interaction between these two species. At the same time an impossibility of a stable combination between Paramecium and yeast cells is demonstrated and the curves of interaction are traced in detail. Independently of these fluctuations two biological peculiarities of the food chain under investigation are pointed out: the existence of a threshold value in the specific consumption of prey by predators (which is due to biological conditions of consumption), and the probable ``non-rigidity'' of their dependence. These two properties, formulated in a differential equation of interaction, lead to periodic fluctuations in numbers corresponding with those observed in the experiment. It is therefore probable that the basic features of interaction are in this way properly demonstrated."
154	Gehring1995.pdf	Gehring C.A. & Whitham T.G. 1995. Duration of herbivore removal and environmental stress affect the ectomycorrhizae of pinyion pines. Ecology 76:2118-2123	6	"The mutualistic mycorrhizal symbionts of plants have shown mixed responses to herbivory; they either decrease, increase, or show no measurable change. We examined the ectomycorrhizal responses of pinyon pine (Pinus edulis) exposed to 1 yr of simulated herbivory in two environments, one stressful and one less so. We also compared levels of ectomycorrhizal colonization and conelet production in pinyons from which an important insect herbivore had been removed for either 1 or 10 yr. Pinyons that grew in more stressful cinder soils experienced significant reductions (19%) in ectomycorrhizal colonization following 1 yr of simulated herbivory while pinyons growing in less stressful sandy loam soils did not. These results indicate that the degree of environmental stress experienced by a plant could affect whether mycorrhizal reductions result from herbivory. In addition the reductions in ectomycorrhizal colonization that resulted from chronic herbivory remained for a full year following herbivore removal even though conelet production increased 250-fold in the same time period. Our findings regarding the role of environmental stress and duration of herbivory in affecting mycorrhizal responses may help explain the variable responses found in other systems"
155	Geritz1997.pdf	"Geritz, S. et al. 1997. Dynamics of Adaptation and Evolutionary Branching. Physical review letters. 78:2024-2027"	4	We present a formal framework for modeling evolutionary dynamics with special emphasis on the generation of diversity through branching of the evolutionary toe. Fitness is defined as the long term growth rate which is influenced by the biotic environment leading to an ever-changing adaptive landscape. Evolution can be described as a dynamics in a space with variable number of dimensions corresponding to the number of different types present. The dynamics within a subspace is governed by the local fitness gradient. Entering a higher dimensional subspace is possible only at a particular type of attractors where the population undergoes evolutionary branching.
156	Gerrodette2011.pdf	"Gerrodette, T. 2011. Inference without significance: Measuring support for hypotheses rather than rejecting them. Marine Ecology 32:404-418"	15	"Despite more than half a century of criticism, significance testing continues to be used commonly by ecologists. Significance tests are widely misused and misunderstood, and even when properly used, they are not very informative for most ecological data. Problems of misuse and misinterpretation include: (i) invalid logic; (ii) rote use; (iii) equating statistical significance with biological importance; (iv) regarding the P-value as the probability that the null hypothesis is true; (v) regarding the P-value as a measure of effect size; and (vi) regarding the P-value as a measure of evidence. Significance tests are poorly suited for inference because they pose the wrong question. In addition, most null hypotheses in ecology are point hypotheses already known to be false, so whether they are rejected or not provides little additional understanding. Ecological data rarely fit the controlled experimental setting for which significance tests were developed. More satisfactory methods of inference assess the degree of support which data provide for hypotheses, measured in terms of information theory (model-based inference), likelihood ratios (likelihood inference) or probability (Bayesian inference). Modern statistical methods allow multiple data sets to be combined into a single likelihood framework, avoiding the loss of information that can occur when data are analyzed in separate steps. Inference based on significance testing is compared with model-based, likelihood and Bayesian inference using data on an endangered porpoise, Phocoena sinus. All of the alternatives lead to greater understanding and improved inference than provided by a P-value and the associated statement of statistical significance."
158	Ginzburg2004.pdf	"Ginzburg, L.R.; Jensen, C.X.J. 2004. Rules of thumb for judging ecological theories. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19:121-126"	6	"An impressive fit to historical data suggests to biologists that a given ecological model is highly valid. Models often achieve this fit at the expense of exaggerated complexity that is not justified by empirical evidence. Because overfitted theories complement the traditional assumption that ecology is 'messy', they generally remain unquestioned. Using predation theory as an example, we suggest that a fit-driven appraisal of model value is commonly misdirected; although fit to historical data can be important, the simplicity and generality of a theory - and thus its ecological value - are of comparable importance. In particular, we argue that theories whose complexity greatly exceeds the complexity of the problem that they address should be rejected. We suggest heuristics for distinguishing between valuable ecological theories and their overfitted brethren."
159	Gleason1926.pdf	"Gleason, H.A. 1926. The Individualistic Concept of the Plant Association. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 53:46204"	1	"1. The ordinary processes of migration bring the reproductive bodies of a single plant or a species of plant into many places. 2. The ordinary processes of migration bring the reproductive bodies of various plants into the same place. 3. Of the various species which reach one spot of ground, the local environment determines which may live, depending on the individual physiological demands of each species separately. 4. On every spot of ground, the environment varies in time, and consequently the vegetation varies in time. 5. At any given time, the environment varies in space, and consequently vegetation varies in space. 6. A piece of vegetation which maintains a reasonable degree of homogeneity over an appreciable area and a reasonable permanence over a considerable time may be designated as a unit community. Within such an area and during such a period similarity in environmental selection tends toward similarity in vegetation. 7. Since every community varies in structure, and since no two communities are precisely alike, or have genetic or dynamic connection, a precisely logical classification of communities is not possible. Although a summary is generally considered to close a discussion, it nevertheless seems desirable to indicate very briefly the relation of the individualistic concept to other current philosophies of the plant community. The individualistic concept is totally at variance with the idea that the association is an organism, represented by many individuals, and also does not admit an analogy or homology between the species and the association. While affirming the existence of definite communities, characterized by reasonable uniformity over a considerable area terminated by a definite boundary, the concept denies that all vegetation is thus segregated into communities. The concept is by no means opposed to the recognition of the synusia, or union, defining it as a group of plants whose physiological demands are so similar that they are regularly selected by the same environment and consequently regularly live together. If classification of communities on the basis of floristic resemblance is rejected, and if broader areas of vegetation are searched for characters indicating genetic or dynamic similarity, these are first found in the broad floristic group now known as a biome. The plants of a biome, living together now as their ancestors have lived together and evolved together in the past, represent an environmental selection of a broad type, while lociation and faciation within the biome indicate the variability of the environment and the irregularity of migration."
160	Gomulkiewicz1999.pdf	"Gomulkiewicz, R.; Holt, R.D.; Barfield, M. 1999. The effects of density dependence and immigration on local adaptation and niche evolution in a black-hole sink environment. Theoretical Population Biology 55:283-296"	14	"We examine the effects of density dependence and immigration on local adaptation in a ""black-hole sink"" habitat, i.e., a habitat in which isolated populations of a species would tend to extinction but where a population is demographically maintained by recurrent one-way migration from a separate source habitat in which the species persists. Using a diploid, one-locus model of a discrete-generation sink population maintained by immigration from a fixed source population, we show that a locally favored allele will spread when rare in the sink if the absolute fitness (or, in some cases, the geometric-mean absolute fitness) of heterozygotes with the favored allele is above one in the sink habitat. With density dependence, the criterion for spread can depend on the rate of immigration, because immigration affects local densities and, hence, absolute fitness. Given the successful establishment of a locally favored allele, it will be maintained by a migration-selection balance and the resulting polymorphic population will be sustained deterministically with either stable or unstable dynamics. The densities of stable polymorphic populations tend to exceed densities that would be maintained in the absence of the favored allele. With strong density regulation, spread of the favored allele may destabilize population dynamics. Our analyses show that polymorphic populations which form subsequent to the establishment of favorable alleles have the capacity to persist deterministically without immigration. Finally, we examined the probabilistic rate at which new favored alleles arise and become established in a sink population. Our results suggest that favored alleles are established most readily at intermediate levels of immigration."
161	Gorham1979.pdf	"Gorham, E., Vitousek P.,Reiners. W.A. 1979. The regulation of chemical budgets over the course of terrestrial ecosystem succession. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 10:53-84"	32	"Vitousek & Reiners (158) have suggested that change in net ecosystem production is a major determinant of the balance between inputs and out_ puts of elements in terrestrial ecosystems. They argued that in the course of primary succession element outputs are initially relatively high (approx_ imating inputs), that they then drop to a minimum because of element accumulation in biomass and detritus when net ecosystem production is highest, and that eventually output rates rise again approximately to equal inputs in late succession when net ecosystem production approaches zero (Figure 1). In most cases of secondary succession, net ecosystem production is negative immediately following disturbance, and in such cases output rates can exceed input rates. The probable importance of change in net ecosystem production is supported in particular by observations of higher element outputs from later successional ecosystems (22, 90,157-159) and also by the recorded increases in element outputs following disturbance (17, 86, 91, 150, 170). Other processes can also affect chemical budgets systematically in the course of terrestrial ecosystem succession. These processes may lessen or obscure the importance of net ecosystem production in particular instances, or they may cause the level of inputs and outputs, though still in balance, to be higher or lower at the end of succession than at the beginning. The objective of this paper is to identify and discuss the diverse processes that can influence inputs and outputs in the course of terrestrial succession. The processes examined are those that affect element inputs to systems, includ_ ing rock and soil weathering, nitrogen fixation, particle impaction, and gas absorption; those that change with alterations in hydrology, including losses of dissolved substances, erosion, and oxidation-reduction reactions; and those biological processes that directly or indirectly affect the balance be_ tween inputs and outputs, including net ecosystem production, element mobilization or immobilization, cation/anion balance, the production of allelochemic substances, and changes in element utilization by the biota. Each of these processes varies systematically in the course of succession, though the magnitude of each change may be difficult to predict in the course of any particular succession. We seek in this review to establish an organizational framework that will stimulate research upon the mechanisms controlling ecosystem inputs and outputs, and thus to facilitate the development of general mechanistic mod_ els for biogeochemical cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. We cannot reduce the complexity of nature to simplicity, but we can provide a clearer appreci_ ation and understanding of the diverse interacting mechanisms at work over the course of terrestrial succession. The new insights that will lead to a fuller understanding of the chemical budgets of ecosystems can come only from further detailed examination of these mechanisms."
162	Gotelli2001.pdf	"Gotelli, N.J.; Colwell, R.K. 2001. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurment and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters 4:379-391"	13	"Species richness is a fundamental measurement of community and regional diversity, and it underlies many ecological models and conservation strategies. In spite of its importance, ecologists have not always appreciated the effects of abundance and sampling effort on richness measures and comparisons. We survey a series of common pitfalls in quantifying and comparing taxon richness. These pitfalls can be largely avoided by using accumulation and rarefaction curves, which may be based on either individuals or samples. These taxon sampling curves contain the basic information for valid richness comparisons, including category+subcategory ratios (species-to-genus and species-toindividual ratios). Rarefaction methods + both sample-based and individual-based + allow for meaningful standardization and comparison of datasets. Standardizing data sets by area or sampling effort may produce very different results compared to standardizing by number of individuals collected, and it is not always clear which measure of diversity"
163	Gould1979.pdf	Gould S.J.; Lewontin R.C. 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm : a critique of the adaptionist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 205:581-598	18	"An adaptationist programme has dominated evolutionary thought in England and the United States during the past forty years. It is based on faith in the power of natural selection as an optimizing agent. It proceeds by breaking an organism into unitary ""traits"" and proposing an adaptive story for each considered separately. Trade-offs among competing selective demands exert the only brake upon perfection; nonoptimality is thereby rendered as a result of adaptation as well. We criticize this approach and attempt to reassert a competing notion (long popular in continental Europe) that organisms must be analyzed as integrated wholes, with baupl  _ne so constrained by phyletic heritage, pathways of development, and general architecture that the constraints themselves become more interesting and more important in delimiting pathways of change than the selective force that may mediate change when it occurs. We fault the adaptationist programme for its failure to distinguish current utility from reasons for origin (male tyrannosaurs may have used their diminutive front legs to titillate female partners, but this will not explain why they got so small); for its unwillingness to consider alternatives to adaptive stories; for its reliance upon plausibility alone as a criterion for accepting speculative tales; and for its failure to consider adequately such competing themes as random fixation of alleles, production of nonadaptive structures by developmental correlation with selected features (allometry, pleiotropy, material compensation, mechanically forced correlation), the separability of adaptation and selection, multiple adaptive peaks, and current utility as an epiphenomenon of nonadaptive structures. We support Darwin's own pluralistic approach to identifying the agents of evolutionary change."
164	Grace1991.pdf	Grace J.B. 1991. A clarification of the debate between Grime and Tilman. Functional Ecology 5:583-587	5	No Abstract
165	Grant1995.pdf	"Grant, P.R; Grant, B.R. 1995. The Founding of a New Population of Darwin's Finches. Evolution 49:229-240"	12	"We report the natural colonization of the small Galapagos island Daphne Major by the large ground finch (Geospiza magnirostris). Immigrants of this species were present in every year of a 22-yr study, 1973-1994. Typically they arrived after a breeding season and left at the beginning of the next one. Geospiza magnirostris bred on the island for the first time in the exceptionally wet El Nino year of 1982-1983, and bred in all subsequent years except drought years. In agreement with theoretical expectations the frequency of inbreeding was unusually high. Pronounced fluctuating asymmetry in tarsus length, together with slightly reduced breeding success of inbreeding pairs, suggests a low level of inbreeding depression. Despite this, the population increased from 5 breeding individuals in 1983 to 20 breeding individuals in 1992, and probably more than twice that number in 1993, largely through recruitment of locally born birds. The study illustrates the joint role of chance and determinism in colonization. The original colonizers were apparently a nonrandom sample with respect to morphological traits, and they and their offspring differed significantly in bill size from the immigrants that did not stay to breed. Because the traits appear to be heritable, the colonists were a genetically nonrandom sample. Genetic drift may have occurred, as only 6 of 13 founders produced recruits and small nonrandom tendencies in the colonists were amplified in the next two generations. An analogous process affected a culturally inherited trait, song type. This changed radically in frequency, apparently for reasons unconnected with properties of the song type itself; males singing one song type had better fledging and recruitment success than those singing another. The addition of a fourth species to a community of three is nor expected on simple biogeographical grounds. It owes more to repeated immigration and the unusual but unidentified conditions favoring colonization than to a change in food supply on Daphne. Colonization and subsequent immigration may be the model pattern of founder events, applicable to continental and many insular situations."
166	Grime1973.pdf	"Grime, J.P. 1973. Competitive Exclusion In Herbaceous Vegetation. Nature 242:344-347"	4	"In maintaining or reconstructing types of herbaceous vegetation in which the density of flowering plants exceeds 20 species/m2�the so-called ""species-rich"" communities, success is often frustrated by competitive exclusion. Here I describe an attempt to identify criteria with which to assess or anticipate the effect of competitive exclusion both at individual sites and in different types of vegetation."
167	Grime1974.pdf	"Grime, J.P. 1974. Vegetation classification by reference to strategies. Nature 250:26-31"	6	"It is suggested that there are three major determinants of vegetation-competition, stress and disturbance-and that each has invoked a distinct strategy on the part of the flowering plant. A method is described whereby it is possible to distinguish types of herbaceous vegetation by reference to the relative importance of the three strategies in the genotypes of the component species."
168	Grime1977.pdf	"Grime, J.P. 1977. Evidence for the existence of three primary strategies in plants and its relevance to ecological and evolutionary theory. The American Naturalist 111:1169-1194"	26	No Abstract
169	Grime1998.pdf	"Grime, J.P. 1998. Benefits of plant diversity to ecosystems: immediate, filter and founder effects. Journal of Ecology 86:902-910"	9	"1. It is useful to distinguish between the immediate effects of species richness on ecosystems and those which become apparent on a longer time scale, described here as filter and founder effects. 2. Relationships between plant diversity and ecosystem properties can be explored by classifying component species into three categories - dominants, subordinates and transients. Dominants recur in particular vegetation types, are relatively large, exhibit coarse-grained foraging for resources and, as individual species, make a substantial contribution to the plant biomass. Subordinates also show high fidelity of association with particular vegetation types but they are smaller in stature, forage on a more restricted scale and tend to occupy microhabitats delimited by the architecture and phenology of their associated dominants. Transients comprise a heterogeneous assortment of species of low abundance and persistence; a high proportion are juveniles of species that occur as dominants or subordinates in neighbouring ecosystems. 3. A `mass ratio' theory proposes that immediate controls are in proportion to inputs to primary production, are determined to an overwhelming extent by the traits and functional diversity of the dominant plants and are relatively insensitive to the richness of subordinates and transients. Recent experiments support the mass ratio hypothesis and the conclusion of Huston (1997) that claims of immediate benefits of high species richness to ecosystem functions arise from misinterpretation of data. 4. Attribution of immediate control to dominants does not exclude subordinates and transients from involvement in the determination of ecosystem function and sustainability. Both are suspected to play a crucial, if intermittent, role by influencing the recruitment of dominants. Some subordinates may act as a filter influencing regeneration by dominants following major perturbations. 5. Transients originate from the seed rain and seed banks and provide an index of the pool of potential dominants and subordinates at specific sites. Where the landscape carousel operates against a background of declining diversity in the reservoir of colonizing transients, we may predict that a progressive loss of ecosystem functions will arise from the decline in the precision with which dominants can engage in the re-assembly and relocation of ecosystems."
170	Grimm2005.pdf	"Grimm, V. 2005. Pattern-oriented modeling of agent-based complex systems: lessons from ecology. Science 310:987-991"	1	"Agent-based complex systems are dynamic networks of many interacting agents; examples include ecosystems, financial markets, and cities. The search for general principles underlying the internal organization of such systems often uses bottom-up simulation models such as cellular automata and agent-based models. No general framework for designing, testing, and analyzing bottom-up models has yet been established, but recent advances in ecological modeling have come together in a general strategy we call pattern-oriented modeling. This strategy provides a unifying framework for decoding the internal organization of agent-based complex systems and may lead toward unifying algorithmic theories of the relation between adaptive behavior and system complexity."
171	Grinnell1917.pdf	"Grinnell, B.Y. 1917. The niche-relationships of the california thrasher. The Auk 34:427-433"	7	No Abstract
172	Grubb1977.pdf	"Grubb, P.J. 1977. The Maintenance of Species-Richness in Plant Communities: the Importance of the Regeneration Niche. Biological Review 52:107-145"	39	"1 According to �Gause's hypothesis� a corollary of the process of evolution by natural selection is that in a community at equilibrium every species must occupy a different niche. Many botanists have found this idea improbable because they have ignored the processes of regeneration in plant communities. 2 Most plant communities are longer-lived than their constituent individual plants. When an individual dies, it may or may not be replaced by an individual of the same species. It is this replacement stage which is all-important to the argument presented. 3 Several mechanisms not involving regeneration also contribute to the maintenance of species-richness: (a). differences in life-form coupled with the inability of larger plants to exhaust or cut off all resources, also the development of dependence-relationships, (b) differences in phenology coupled with tolerance of suppression, (c) fluctuations in the environment coupled with relatively small differences in competitive ability between many species, (d) the ability of certain species-pairs to form stable mixtures because of a balance of intraspecific competition against interspecific competition, (e) the production of substances more toxic to the producer-species than to the other species, (f) differences in the primary limiting mineral nutrients or pore-sizes in the soil for neighbouring plants of different soecies, and (g) differences in the competitive abilities of species dependent on their physiological age coupled with the uneven-age structure of many populations. 4 The mechanisms listed above do not go far to explain the indefinite persistence in mixture of the many species in the most species-rich communities known. 5 In contrast there seem to be almost limitless possibilities for differences between species in their requirements for regeneration, i.e. the replacement of the individual plants of one generation by those of the next. This idea is illustrated for tree species and it is emphasized that foresters were the first by a wide margin to appreciate its importance. 6 The processes involved in the successful invasion of a gap by a given plant species and some characters of the gap that may be important are summarized in Table 2. 7 The definition of a plant's niche requires recognition of four components: (a) the habitat niche, (b) the life-form niche, (c) the phenological niche, and (d) the regeneration niche. 8 A brief account is given of the patterns of regeneration in different kinds of plant community to provide a background for studies of differentiation in the regeneration niche. 9 All stages in the regeneration-cycle are potentially important and examples of differentiation between species are given for each of the following stages: (a) Production of viable seed (including the sub-stages of flowering, pollination and seed-set), (b) dispersal, in space and time, (c) germination, (d) establishment, and (e) further development of the immature plant. 10 In the concluding discussion emphasis is placed on the following themes: (a) the kinds of work needed in future to prove or disprove that differentiation in the regeneration niche is the major explanation of the maintenance of species-richness in plant communities, (b) the relation of the present thesis to published ideas on the origin of phenological spread, (c) the relevance of the present thesis to the discussion on the presence of continua in vegetation, (d) the co-incidence of the present thesis and the emerging ideas of evolutionists about differentiation of angiosperm taxa, and (e) the importance of regeneration-studies for conservation."
173	Guisan2005.pdf	"Guisan, A.; Thuiller, W. 2005. Predicting species distribution: offering more than simple habitat models. Ecology Letters 8:993-1009"	17	"In the last two decades, interest in species distribution models (SDMs) of plants and animals has grown dramatically. Recent advances in SDMs allow us to potentially forecast anthropogenic effects on patterns of biodiversity at different spatial scales. However, some limitations still preclude the use of SDMs in many theoretical and practical applications. Here, we provide an overview of recent advances in this field, discuss the ecological principles and assumptions underpinning SDMs, and highlight critical limitations and decisions inherent in the construction and evaluation of SDMs. Particular emphasis is given to the use of SDMs for the assessment of climate change impacts and conservation management issues. We suggest new avenues for incorporating species migration, population dynamics, biotic interactions and community ecology into SDMs at multiple spatial scales. Addressing all these issues requires a better integration of SDMs with ecological theory."
174	Hairston2005.pdf	"Hairston, N.G. et al. 2005. Rapid evolution and the convergence of ecological and evolutionary time. Ecology Letters 8:1114-1127"	14	"Recent studies have documented rates of evolution of ecologically important phenotypes sufficiently fast that they have the potential to impact the outcome of ecological interactions while they are underway. Observations of this type go against accepted wisdom that ecological and evolutionary dynamics occur at very different time scales. While some authors have evaluated the rapidity of a measured evolutionary rate by comparing it to the overall distribution of measured evolutionary rates, we believe that ecologists are mainly interested in rapid evolution because of its potential to impinge on ecological processes. We therefore propose that rapid evolution be defined as a genetic change occurring rapidly enough to have a measurable impact on simultaneous ecological change. Using this definition we propose a framework for decomposing rates of ecological change into components driven by simultaneous evolutionary change and by change in a non-evolutionary factor (e.g. density dependent population dynamics, abiotic environmental change). Evolution is judged to be rapid in this ecological context if its contribution to ecological change is large relative to the contribution of other factors. We provide a worked example of this approach based on a theoretical predator- prey interaction [Abrams, P. & Matsuda, H. (1997). Evolution, 51, 1740], and find that in this system the impact of prey evolution on predator per capita growth rate is 63% that of internal ecological dynamics. We then propose analytical methods for measuring these contributions in field situations, and apply them to two long-term data sets for which suitable ecological and evolutionary data exist. For both data sets relatively high rates of evolutionary change have been found when measured as character change in standard deviations per generation (haldanes). For Darwin's finches evolving in response to fluctuating rainfall [Grant, P.R. & Grant, B.R. (2002). Science, 296, 707], we estimate that evolutionary change has been more rapid than ecological change by a factor of 2.2. For a population of freshwater copepods whose life history evolves in response to fluctuating fish predation [Hairston, N.G. Jr & Dillon, T.A. (1990). Evolution, 44, 1796], we find that evolutionary change has been about one quarter the rate of ecological change - less than in the finch example, but nevertheless substantial. These analyses support the view that in order to understand temporal dynamics in ecological processes it is critical to consider the extent to which the attributes of the system under investigation are simultaneously changing as a result of rapid evolution."
175	Hairston1960.pdf	"Hairston, N.G. ; Smith, F.; Slobodkin, L. 1960. Community structure, population control, and competition. The American Naturalist 94:421-425"	5	"In summary, then, our general conclusions are: (1) Populations of producers, carnivores, and decomposers are limited by their respective resources in the classical density-dependent fashion. (2) Interspecific competition must necessarily exist among the members of each of these three trophic levels. (3) Herbivores are seldom food-limited, appear most often to be predator-limited, and therefore are not likely to compete for common resources."
176	Hairston1993.pdf	"Hairston, N.G. 1993. Cause-Effect Relationships in Energy-Flow, Trophic Structure, and Interspecific Interactions. American Naturalist 142:379-411"	33	"Measurements of the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels are consistent with the hypothesis that it is trophic structure that controls the fraction of energy consumed at each trophic level, rather than energetics controlling trophic structure. Moreover, trophic structure is determined by competitive and predator-prey interactions. In freshwater pelagic communities, the collective efficiency of herbivorous plankton in consuming primary producers is up to 10 times as great as is the efficiency of forest herbivores in consuming their food. Conversely, forest predators are about three times as efficient in consuming herbivore production. as are zooplanktivorous fish. The presence of an additional level, piscivorous fish, in pelagic communities accounts for the difference. In the aquatic system, herbivorous zooplankton are freed from predation by the effect of piscivorous fish on their predators; in the terrestrial system, green plants are freed from herbivory by predation on the herbivores. We explain the contrast between freshwater pelagic systems and forests and prairies as follows: Pelagic ecosystems have more trophic levels as a result of selection for small rapidly growing primary producers, which cannot hold space in the fluid medium, in contrast to large space-occupying producers in the terrestrial environment. Consumers in pelagic systems are more frequently gape limited in the size range of food they can ingest than are grasping consumers in terrestrial systems. This difference makes for two largely distinct levels of predators in pelagic communities. The energy within the living, nondetrital components is more finely divided between trophic levels in pelagic systems than in terrestrial systems. Ecological efficiencies do not determine trophic structure; rather, they are its product."
177	Haldane1963.pdf	Haldane J.B.S. & Jayakar S.D. 1963. Polymorphism due to selection of varying direction. Journal of Genetics 58:237-242	6	"In a large random mating population segregating for a pair of allelomorphs with full dominance, the condition that neither allelomorph should disappear is that the arithmetic mean of the fitnesses of recessives in different generations should exceed unity, their geometric mean fall below it."
178	Halpern2008.pdf	Halpern B.S. et al. 2008. A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science 319:948-952	5	"The management and conservation of the world's oceans require synthesis of spatial data on the distribution and intensity of human activities and the overlap of their impacts on marine ecosystems. We developed an ecosystem-specific, multiscale spatial model to synthesize 17 global data sets of anthropogenic drivers of ecological change for 20 marine ecosystems. Our analysis indicates that no area is unaffected by human influence and that a large fraction (41%) is strongly affected by multiple drivers. However, large areas of relatively little human impact remain, particularly near the poles. The analytical process and resulting maps provide flexible tools for regional and global efforts to allocate conservation resources; to implement ecosystem-based management; and to inform marine spatial planning, education, and basic research."
179	Hamilton1982.pdf	Hamilton W.D. & Zuk M. 1982. Heritable trus fitness and bright birds : a role for parasites? Science 28:384-387	4	"Combination of svee surveys of blood prasies in North American passerines reveals weak, highly significant association over species between inci- dence of chronic blood infections (five genera of protozoa and one netnatode) and striking display (three characters: inle ""brightness,"" female ""brightness,"" and male song). This result contforms to a nmodel of sexual selection in which (i) coadaptatieonal cycles of host and parasites generate consistently positive offspring- on-parent regression of fitiess, and (it animaalschoose mates for genetic disease resistance by scrutiny of characters whose fill expression is dependent on health and vigor."
180	Hamilton1977.pdf	"Hamilton, W.D. & May, R.M. 1977. Dispersal in stable habitats. Nature 269:578-581"	4	Simple mathematical model show that adaptations for achieving dispersal retaing great importance even in uniform and predictable environments. A parent organism is excpected to try to enter a high fraction of its propagules into competition for sites away from its own immediate locality even when mortality to such dispersing propagules is extremely high. The models incidentally provide a case where the evolutionarily stable dispersal strategy for individuals is suboptimal for the population as a whole. 
181	Hamilton1964a.pdf	"Hamilton, W.D. 1964a. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:42370"	1	"A genetical mathematical model is described which allows for interactions between relatives on one another's fitness. Making use of Wright's Coefficient of Relationship as the measure of the proportion of replica genes in a relative, a quantity is found which incorporates the maximizing property of Darwinian fitness. This quantity is named ""inclusive fitness"". Species following the model should tend to evolve behaviour such that each organism appears to be attempting to maximize its inclusive fitness. This implies a limited restraint on selfish competitive behaviour and possibility of limited self-sacrifices.  Special cases of the model are used to show (a) that selection in the social situations newly covered tends to be slower than classical selection, (b) how in populations of rather non-dispersive organisms the model may apply to genes affecting dispersion, and (c) how it may apply approximately to competition between relatives, for example, within sibships. Some artificialities of the model are discussed."
182	Hamilton1964b.pdf	"Hamilton, W.D. 1964b. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. II. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7:17-52"	36	"Grounds for thinking that the model described in the previous paper can be used to support general biological principles of social evolution are briefly discussed. Two principles are presented, the first concerning the evolution of social behaviour in general and the second the evolution of social discrimination. Some tentative evidence is given. More general application of the theory in biology is then discussed, particular attention being given to cases where the indicated interpretation differs from previous views and to cases which appear anomalous. A hypothesis is outlined concerning social evolution in the Hymenoptera; but the evidence that at present exists is found somewhat contrary on certain points. Other subjects considered include warning behaviour, the evolution of distasteful properties in insects, clones of cells and clones of zooids as contrasted with other types of colonies, the confinement of parental care to true offspring in birds and insects, fights, the behaviour of parasitoid insect larvae within a host, parental care in connection with monogyny and monandry and multi-ovulate ovaries in plants in connection with wind and insect pollination."
183	Hamilton1966.pdf	"Hamilton, W.D. 1966. The moulding of senescence by natural selection. Journal of Theoretical Biology 12:16772"	1	"The consequences to fitness of several types of small age-specific effects on mortality are formulated mathematically. An effect of given form always has a larger consequence, or at least one as large, when it occurs earlier. By reference to a model in which mortality is constant it is shown that this implication cannot be avoided by any conceivable organism. A basis for the theory that senescence is an inevitable outcome of evolution is thus established. The simple theory cannot explain specially high infant mortalities. Fisher's  reproductive value , the form of which gave rise to an erroneous opinion on this point, is shown to be not directly relevant to the situation. Infant mortality may evolve when the early death of one infant makes more likely the creation or survival of a close relative. Similarly, post-reproductive life-spans may evolve when the old animal still benefits its younger relatives. The model shows that higher fertility will be a primary factor leading to the evolution of higher rates of senescence unless the resulting extra mortality is confined to the immature period. Some more general analytical notes on the consequences of modifications to the reproductive schedule are given. Applications to species with populations in continual fluctuation are briefly discussed. Such species apart, it is argued that general stationarity of population can be assumed, in which case the measurement of consequences to fitness in terms of consequences to numerical expectation of offspring is justified. All the age-functions discussed are illustrated by graphs derived from the life-table of the Taiwanese about 1906, and the method of computation is shown."
184	Hamilton1967.pdf	"Hamilton, W.D. 1967. Extraordinary Sex Ratios. Science 156:477-488"	12	A sex-ratio theory for sex linkage and inbreeding has new implications in cytogenetics and entomology.
185	Hanski1994.pdf	"Hanski, I. 1994. A practical model of metapopulation dynamics. Journal of Animal Ecology. 63:151�162."	12	"1. This paper describes a novel approach to modelling of metapopulation dynamics. The model is constructed as a generalized incidence function, which describes how the fraction of occupied habitat patches depends on patch areas and isolations. 2. The model may be fitted to presence/absence data from a metapopulation at a dynamic equilibrium between extinctions and colonizations. 3. Using the estimated parameter values, transient dynamics and the equilibrium fraction of occupied patches in any system of habitat patches can be predicted. The significance of particular habitat patches for the long-term persistence of the metapopulation, for example, can also be evaluated. 4. The model is fitted to data from three butterfly metapopulations. The model predicts well the observed minimum patch size for occupancy and the numbers of extinctions and colonizations per year (turnover rate). The results suggest that local populations of the three butterflies in patches of 1 ha, which may support of the order of 1000 adult butterflies, have an expected lifetime of 20-100 years."
186	Hanski1998.pdf	"Hanski, I. 1998. Metapopulation dynamics. Nature 396:41-49"	9	"Metapopulation biology is concerned with the dynamic consequences of migration among local populations and the conditions of regional persistence of species with unstable local populations. Well established effects of habitat patch area and Isolation on migration, colonization and population extinction have now become integrated with classic metapopulation dynamics. This has led to models that can be used to predict the movement patterns of individuals, the dynamics of species, and the distributional patterns in multispecies communities in real fragmented landscapes."
187	Hardin1960.pdf	"Hardin, G.J. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. Science 162:1243-1248"	6	The population problem has no technical solution; it requires a fundamental extension in morality.
188	Hardin1968.pdf	"Hardin, G.. 1960. The competitive exclusion principle. Science 131:1292-1297"	6	"Opens with a discussion of a meeting of the British Ecological Society devoted to the ecology of closely allied species. Quotes from a contemporary report: 'Discussion centered about Gause's contention that two species with similar ecology cannot live together in the same place... A distinct cleavage of opinion revealed itself on the question of the validity of Gause's concept. Of the main speakers, Mr. Lack, Mr. Elton and Dr. Varley supported the postulate ... Capt. Diver made a vigorous attack on Gause's concept, on the grounds that the mathematical and experimental approaches had been dangerously oversiplified ... Pointing out the difficulty of defining 'similar ecology' he gave examples of many congruent species of both plants and animals apparently living and feeding together.'"
189	Harmon2015.pdf	"Harmon, L.J.; Harrison, S. 2015. Species Diversity Is Dynamic and Unbounded at Local and Continental Scales. The American Naturalist 185:000-000"	1	"We argue that biotas at scales from local communities to entire continents are nearly always open to new species and that their diversities are far from any ecological limits. We show that the fossil, phylogenetic, and morphological evidence that has been used to suggest that ecological processes set limits to diversity in evolutionary time is weak and inconsistent. At the same time, ecological evidence from biological invasions, experiments, and diversity analyses strongly supports the openness of communities to new species. We urge evolutionary biologists to recognize that ecology has largely moved beyond simple notions of equilibrium at a carrying capacity and toward a richer view of communities as highly dynamic in space and time."
190	Harper1967.pdf	"Harper, J.L. 1967. A Darwinian Approach to Plant Ecology. Journal of Applied Ecology 4:267-290"	24	No Abstract
191	Harshman2007.pdf	"Harshman, L.G.; Zera, A.J. 2007. The cost of reproduction: the devil in the details. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22:80-86"	7	"The cost of reproduction is of fundamental importance in life-history evolution. However, our understanding of its mechanistic basis has been limited by a lack of detailed functional information at all biological levels. Here, we identify, evaluate and integrate recent studies in five areas examining the proximate mechanisms underlying the cost of reproduction. Rather than being alternate explanations, hormonal regulation and intermediary metabolism act in concert and have an overarching influence in shaping the cost of reproduction. Immune function is compromised by reproduction, as is resistance to environmental stress. These studies not only provide new information about mechanisms that comprise 'the cost', but also hint at an underlying evolutionarily conserved causal mechanism. "
192	Hartmann2008.pdf	"Hartmann, T. 2008. The lost origin of chemical ecology in the late 19th century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:4541-4546"	6	"The origin of plant chemical ecology generally dates to the late 1950s, when evolutionary entomologists recognized the essential role of plant secondary metabolites in plant-insect interactions and suggested that plant chemical diversity evolved under the selection pressure of herbivory. However, similar ideas had already flourished for a short period during the second half of the 19th century but were largely forgotten by the turn of the century. This article presents the observations and studies of three protagonists of chemical ecology: Anton Kerner von Marilaun (1831-1898, Innsbruck, Austria, and Vienna, Austria), who mainly studied the impact of geological, climatic, and biotic factors on plant distribution and survival; L  �o Errera (1858-1906, Brussels, Belgium), a plant physiologist who analyzed the localization of alkaloids in plant cells and tissues histochemically; and Ernst Stahl (1848-1919, Jena, Germany), likely the first experimental ecologist and who performed feeding studies with snails and slugs that demonstrated the essential role of secondary metabolites in plant protection against herbivores. All three, particularly Stahl, suggested that these ""chemical defensive means"" evolved in response to the relentless selection pressure of the heterotrophic community that surrounds plants. Although convincingly supported by observations and experiments, these ideas were forgotten until recently. Now, more than 100 years later, molecular analysis of the genes that control secondary metabolite production underscores just how correct Kerner von Marilaun, Errera, and, particularly, Stahl were in their view. Why their ideas were lost is likely a result of the adamant rejection of all things ""teleological"" by the physiologists who dominated biological research at the time."
193	Hassell1994.pdf	"Hassell M.P.; Comins, H.N.; May, R.M. 1994. Species coexistence and self-organizing spatial dynamics. Nature 370:290-292"	3	"IN a patchy environment, dispersal between neighbouring local populations can allow the total (regional) population to persist1-5; even where all patches are identical and the within-patch dynamics are unstable, the total population readily persists as a metapopulation. This persistence is associated with striking, self-organized spatial patterns in the densities of the subpopulations. In the case of hosts and parasitoids, these may form spiral waves, spatial chaos, or a so-called 'crystal lattice' with regularly spaced knots of high population density4,6. Here we extend earlier work on two species to three or more, showing that coexistence of competing species is usually associated with some degree of persistent spatial segregation, even when the environment is uniform. At its most extreme, this can confine one species to small, relatively static 'islands' within the habitat, giving the appearance of isolated pockets of favourable habitat. The distributions of interacting species may thus result from a trade-off between dispersal and competition within subpopulations, as much as from external factors."
194	Hassell1976.pdf	"Hassell M.P.; Lawton, J.H.; May, R.M. 1976. Patterns of dynamical behavior in single species populations. Journal of Animal Ecology 45:471-486"	16	"(1) A variety of data on field and laboratory populations is reviewed in which there is little or no overlap between generations. These data are then fitted to a simple, non-linear, density dependent population model.((2) A rich spectrum of dynamical behaviour is possible in such a non-linear model (ranging from a stable equilibrium point, through stable cycles, to apparently chaotic population fluctuations). In the particular model discussed, these stability properties hinge upon two parameters. These have been estimated for a variety of insect populations enabling us to compare the dynamical behaviour of real populations with that which is theoretically possible. (3) We find the majority of populations show a monotonic return to a stable equilibrium point following a disturbance, with relatively few examples of oscillatory damping or low-order limit cycles. (4) Examples of stable cyclic behaviour, or of chaotic fluctuations, are mostly found in laboratory populations. In such cases, the absence of many natural mortality factors, or of dispersal, may tend to exaggerate non-linear aspects of the dynamics. (5) The observed range of fluctuations in various populations is tabulated. These are discussed in relation to the predicted ranges of fluctuation where limit cycles or chaos occur. The conclusion supports that of (3) above; namely that most natural populations will tend to return to a stable equilibrium point following a disturbance."
195	Hassell1973.pdf	Hassell M.P.; May R.M. 1973. Stability in insect host-parasite models. Journal of Animal Ecology 42:693-726	34	"(1) Several models for host-parasite interactions are discussed. Some of these are based on random search where searching efficiency is either assumed to be constant or to depend on host and/or parasite density. In the others, the parasites are assumed to search in a non-random way, tending to aggregate in unit areas where host density is high. The most complex model considered includes three basic parasite responses: the functional response to host density, the response to parasite density and the response to the host distribution. (2) For each of these models, the significant parameters affecting stability are presented and the stability boundaries illustrated where possible. Only mutual interference between searching parasites, aggregation of parasites in unit areas where host density is relatively high and some degree of spatial or temporal asynchrony were found to contribute to stability. (3) The parameters that affect the equilibrium levels of host and parasite populations and those also affecting stability are discussed in the context of biological control. It is concluded that a high basic searching efficiency, a low handling time, some degree of interference and parasite aggregation are all optimum searching characteristics for biological control."
196	Hassell1986.pdf	"Hassell M.P.; May, R.M. 1986. Generalist and Specialist Natural Enemies in Insect Predator-Prey Interactions. Journal of Animal Ecology 55:923-940"	18	"(1) The dynamics of a predator-prey, or parasitoid-host, interaction are considered where the predator or parasitoid is a generalist whose population is buffered against changes in the particular prey being considered. (2) The interaction is then broadened to include, in addition, a specialist natural enemy, and three questions are examined within this framework. (i) Under what conditions can a specialist `invade' and persist in an existing generalist-prey interaction? (ii) How does the addition of the specialist natural enemy alter the prey's population dynamics? (c) How does the relative timing of specialist and generalist in the prey's life cycle affect the dynamics of the interaction? (3) The following conclusions emerge. (i) A specialist can invade and co-exist more easily if acting before the generalists in the prey's life cycle. (ii) A three-species stable system can readily exist where the prey-generalist interaction alone would be unstable or have no equilibrium at all. (iii) In some cases the establishment of a specialist leads to higher prey populations than existed previously with only the generalist acting. (iv) In some cases, a variety of alternative stable states are possible, either alternating between two-species and three-species states, or between different three-species states. "
197	Hassell1991.pdf	"Hassell, M.P., Comins H.N., May R.M. 1991. Spatial structure and chaos in insect population dynamics. Nature 353: 255-258"	4	No Abstract
198	Hatton2015.pdf	"Hatton, I.A. et al. 2015. The predator-prey power law: Biomass scaling across terrestrial and aquatic biomes. Science 349:aac6284-aac6284"	1	No Abstract
199	Hawkins2003.pdf	"Hawkins B.A. et al. 2003. Energy, water, and broad-scale geographic patterns of species richness. Ecology 84:2105-3117"	13	"It is often claimed that we do not understand the forces driving the global diversity gradient. However, an extensive literature suggests that contemporary climate constrains terrestrial taxonomic richness over broad geographic extents. Here, we review the empirical literature to examine the nature and form of the relationship between climate and richness. Our goals were to document the support for the climatically based energy hypothesis, and within the constraints imposed by correlative analyses, to evaluate two versions of the hypothesis: the productivity and ambient energy hypotheses. Focusing on studies extending over 800 km, we found that measures of energy, water, or water�energy balance explain spatial variation in richness better than other climatic and non-climatic variables in 82 of 85 cases. Even when considered individually and in isolation, water/ energy variables explain on average over 60% of the variation in the richness of a wide range of plant and animal groups. Further, water variables usually represent the strongest predictors in the tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate zones, whereas energy variables (for animals) or water�energy variables (for plants) dominate in high latitudes.We conclude that the interaction between water and energy, either directly or indirectly (via plant pro- ductivity), provides a strong explanation for globally extensive plant and animal diversity gradients, but for animals there also is a latitudinal shift in the relative importance of ambient energy vs. water moving from the poles to the equator. Although contemporary climate is not the only factor influencing species richness and may not explain the diversity pattern for all taxonomic groups, it is clear that understanding water�energy dynamics is critical to future biodiversity research. Analyses that do not include water�energy variables are missing a key component for explaining broad-scale patterns of diversity."
200	Hendry1999.pdf	"Hendry, A.P.; Kinnison, M.T. 1999. The pace of modern life: Measuring rates of contemporary microevolution. Evolution 53:1637-1653"	17	"We evaluate methods for measuring and specifying rates of microevolution in the wild, with particular regard to studies of contemporary, often deemed ""rapid,"" evolution. A considerable amount of ambiguity and inconsistency persists within the field, and we provide a number of suggestions that should improve study design, inference, and clarity of presentation. (1) Some studies measure change over time within a population (allochronic) and others measure the difference between two populations that had a common ancestor in the past (synchronic). Allochronic studies can be used to estimate rates of ""evolution,"" whereas synchronic studies more appropriately estimate rates of ""divergence."" Rates of divergence may range from a small fraction to many times the actual evolutionary rates in the component populations. (2) Some studies measure change using individuals captured from the wild, whereas others measure differences after rearing in a common environment. The first type of study can be used to specify ""phenotypic"" rates and the later ""genetic"" rates. (3) The most commonly used evolutionary rate metric, the darwin, has a number of theoretical shortcomings. Studies of microevolution would benefit from specifying rates in standard deviations per generation, the haldane. (4) Evolutionary rates are typically specified without an indication of their precision. Readily available methods for specifying confidence intervals and statistical significance (regression, bootstrapping, randomization) should be implemented. (5) Microevolutionists should strive to accumulate time series, which can reveal temporal shifts in the rate of evolution and can be used to identify evolutionary patterns. (6) Evolutionary rates provide a convenient way to compare the tempo of evolution across studies, traits, taxa, and time scales, but such comparisons are subject to varying degrees of confidence. Comparisons across different time scales are particularly tenuous. (7) A number of multivariate rate measures exist, but considerable theoretical development is required before their utility can be determined. We encourage the continued investigation of evolutionary rates because the information they provide is relevant to a wide range of theoretical and practical issues."
201	Herms1992.pdf	"Herms, D.A.; Mattson, W.J. 1992. The Dilemma of Plants: To Grow or Defend. The Quarterly Review of Biology 67:283"	1	"Physiological and ecological constraints play key roles in the evolution of plant growth patterns, especially in relation to defenses against herbivores. Phenotypic and life history theories are unified within the growth-differentiation balance (GDB) framework, forming an integrated system of theories explaining and predicting patterns of plant defense and competitive interactions in ecological and evolutionary time. Plant activity at the cellular level can be classified as growth (cell division and enlargement) of differentiation (chemical and morphological changes leading to cell maturation and specialization). The GDB hypothesis of plant defense is premised upon a physiological trade-off between growth and differentiation processes. The trade-off between growth and defense exists because secondary metabolism and structural reinforcement are physiologically constrained in dividing and enlarging cells, and because they divert resources from the production of new leaf area. Hence the dilemma of plants: They must grow fast enough to complete, yet maintain the defenses necessary to survive in the presence of pathogens and hervivores. The physiological trade-off between growth and differentiation processes interacts with herbivory and plant-plant competition to manifest itself as a genetic trade-off between growth and defense in the evolution of plant life history strategies. Evolutionary theories of plant defense are reviewed. We also extend a standard growth rate model by separating its ecological and evolutionary components,and formalizing the role of competition in the evolution of plant defense. We conclude with a conceptual model of the evolution of plant defense in which plant physioligical trade-offs interact with the abiotic environment, competition and herbivory."
202	Hobbs2006.pdf	"Hobbs R.J. et al. 2006. Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography 15, 1�7"	7	"We explore the issues relevant to those types of ecosystems containing new combinations of species that arise through human action, environmental change, and the impacts of the deliberate and inadvertent introduction of species from other regions. Novel ecosystems (also termed 'emerging ecosystems') result when species occur in combinations and relative abundances that have not occurred previously within a given biome. Key characteristics are novelty, in the form of new species combinations and the potential for changes in ecosystem functioning, and human agency, in that these ecosystems are the result of deliberate or inadvertent human action. As more of the Earth becomes transformed by human actions, novel ecosystems increase in importance, but are relatively little studied. Either the degradation or invasion of native or 'wild' ecosystems or the abandonment of intensively managed systems can result in the formation of these novel systems. Important considerations are whether these new systems are persistent and what values they may have. It is likely that it may be very difficult or costly to return such systems to their previous state, and hence consideration needs to be given to developing appropriate management goals and approaches."
203	Hochberg2009.pdf	"Hochberg, M.E. et al. 2009. The tragedy of the reviewer commons. Ecology Letters 12:42096"	1	No Abstract
204	Hodos1969.pdf	"Hodos, W.; Campbell, C.B. 1969. Scala naturae - why there is no theory in comparative psychology. Psychological Review 76:337-350"	14	"The concept that all living animals can be arranged along a continuous ""phylogenetic scale"" with man at the top is inconsistent with contemporary views of animal evolution. Nevertheless, this arbitrary hierarchy continues to influence researchers in the field of animal behavior who seek to make inferences about the evolutionary development of a particular type of behavior. Comparative psychologists have failed to distinguish between data obtained from living representatives of a common evolutionary lineage and data from animals which represent divergent lineages. Only the former can provide a foundation for inferences about the phylogenetic development of behavior patterns. The latter can provide information only about general mechanisms of adaptation and survival, which are not necessarily relevant to any specific evolutionary lineage. The widespread failure of comparative psychologists to take into account the zoological model of animal evolution when selecting animals for study and when interpreting behavioral similarities and differences has greatly hampered the development of generalizations with any predictive value."
205	Holling1973.pdf	"Holling, C.S. 1973. Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:44927"	1	"Each family of the desert isopod Hemilepistus reaumuri uses its faeces to build an embankment around its burrow entrance in the form of a ring with an inner radius of 5-10 cm and an outer radius of 8-15 cm. Although the embankment, like the burrow entrance, is detected only by contact with the antennae, it facilitates the return to the burrow after an excursion. When a desert isopod returns from foraging it reaches the burrow entrance itself (diameter 12 mm) only in ca. 12% of the observed cases by ""dead reckoning""; the embankment, however, is reached six times more frequently. After detecting this landmark an isopod needs a further 12% of the pathlength of the preceding excursion to locate the burrow entrance. In contrast, it travels five times further to reach its burrow from the same distance (10 cm) if the landmark is missing. The landmark is even more important when the isopod, because of a large error in orientation, can reach its burrow only by searching. Both the characteristics of the search path of H. reaumuri and the success of it's search behaviour correspond well to the respective features of a theoretical procedure, which best solves the search problem of the desert isopods assuming that a landmark is available for orientation. The optimal search procedure was calculated by using information about the probability density that an error in orientation has a given size, and the cumulative probability that the landmark is detected if the isopod searches in it's region with a given intensity. The coupling of the systematic search strategy of H. reaumuri with landmark orientation shortens the average time needed for homing by one-third. It helps an isopod to return to it's burrow after foraging even if all the orientation mechanisms normally used for this task have broken down."
206	Holling1959.pdf	"Holling, C.S. 1959. The Components of Predation as Revealed by a Study of Small-Mammal Predation of the European Pine Sawfly. The Canadian Entomologist 91:293-320"	28	"In this article, he propose 3 forms of functional response"
207	Holt1993.pdf	"Holt, R.D. ; Lawton, J.H. 1993. Apparent competition and enemy-free space in insect host-parasitoid communities. The American naturalist 142:623-645"	1	"Apparent competition is indirect competition between two or more victim species that share a natural enemy, caused by that enemy's numerical response. We review empirical examples of apparent competition in phytophagous insect hosts attacked by polyphagous parasitoids and develop models of apparent competition in host-parasitoid systems. Apparent competition is particularly likely in insect assemblages because parasitoids can limit their hosts to levels at which resource competition is unimportant. A consideration of both equilibrium and nonequilibrium models in which polyphagous parasitoids impose significant mortality on their hosts suggests that the most common outcome is the exclusion of all but one host species, which generates dynamic monophagy (i.e., a single host species persisting with a potentially polyphagous parasitoid). A crisp criterion for dominance in apparent competition is that the winning host supports the highest parasitoid density. We conclude that it is difficult for alternative hosts to coexist when the sole regulatory factor is a shared parasitoid. Yet in nature, coexisting hosts frequently do share parasitoids. We examine several mechanisms promoting host coexistence, including donor-controlled parasitoid dynamics, additional sources of host density dependence (e.g., resource limitation), spatial and temporal refuges, trophic web structure, and labile parasitoid behavior. Elucidating the mechanisms permitting the coexistence of host species confronted by effective polyphagous parasitoids deserves more attention from experimental field ecologists."
208	Holt1997.pdf	"Holt, R.D. ; Polis, G. 1997. A theoretical framework for intraguild predation. American Naturalist 149:745-764"	20	"Many important issues in community ecology revolve around the interplay of competition and predation. Species that compete may also be locked in predator-prey interactions, a mixture of competition and predation known as ''intraguild predation'' (IGP). There is growing evidence for the importance of IGP in many natural communities, yet little formal ecological theory addresses this particular blend of interactions. In this article, we explore the consequences of incorporating IGP into standard models of exploitative competition and food chains (a general resource-consumer model, a Lotka-Volterra food chain model, and Schoener's exploitative competition model). Our theoretical analyses suggest a general criterion for coexistence in IGP systems: the intermediate species (the prey in intraguild predation) should be superior at exploitative competition for the shared resource, whereas the top species (the predator) should gain significantly from its consumption of the intermediate species. Along gradients in environmental productivity, coexistence is most likely at intermediate levels of productivity. Analyses of the models reveal the potential for alternative stable states in systems with IGP; these are particularly likely if the top predator gains little benefit from consuming the intermediate predator. We further show that IGP can lead to unstable population dynamics, even when all pairwise interactions are inherently stable and each species can increase when rare. Persistent, strong IGP raises a puzzle of species coexistence, particularly in productive environments. We conclude by comparing IGP with related community modules (i.e., food chains, exploitative competition, apparent competition) and discussing mechanisms that should foster coexistence in systems with strong IGP."
209	Holt1977.pdf	"Holt, R.D. 1977. Predation, apparent competition, and the structure of prey communities. Theoretical Population Biology 12:197-229"	33	"It is argued that alternate prey species in the diet of a food-limited generalist predator should reduce each other's equilibrial abundances, whether or not they directly compete. Such indirect, interspecific interactions are labeled apparent competition. Two examples are discussed in which an observed pattern of habitat segregation was at first interpreted as evidence for direct competition, but later interpreted as apparent competition resulting from shared predation. In order to study the consequences of predator-mediated apparent competition in isolation from other complicating factors, a model community is analyzed in which there is no direct interspecific competition among the prey. An explicit necessary condition for prey species coexistence is derived for the case of one predator feeding on many prey species. This model community has several interesting properties: (1) Prey species with high relative values for a parameter ra are  keystone  species in the community; (2) prey species can be excluded from the community by  diffuse  apparent competition; (3) large changes in the niche breadth of the predator need not correspond to large changes in predator density; (4) the prey trophic level as a whole is regulated by the predator, yet each of its constituent species is regulated by both the predator and available resources; (5) increased productivity may either increase, decrease, or leave unchanged the number of species in the community; (6) a decrease in density-independent mortality may decrease species diversity. These conclusions seem to be robust to changes in the prey growth equations and to the incorporation of predator satiation. By contrast, adding prey refugia or predator switching to the model weakens these conclusions. If the predator can be satiated or switched, the elements aij comprising the community matrix may have signs opposite the long-term effect of j upon i. The effect of natural selection upon prey species coexistence is discussed. Unless ri, Ki, and ai are tightly coupled, natural selection within prey species i will tend to decrease the equilibrial abundance of species j."
210	Hooper2005.pdf	"Hooper, D.U.; Chapin III, F.S.; Ewel, J.J. 2005. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs 75:12844."	1	"Humans are altering the composition of biological communities through a variety of activities that increase rates of species invasions and species extinctions, at all scales, from local to global. These changes in components of the Earth's biodiversity cause concern for ethical and aesthetic reasons, but they also have a strong potential to alter ecosystem properties and the goods and services they provide to humanity. Ecological experiments, observations, and theoretical developments show that ecosystem properties depend greatly on biodiversity in terms of the functional characteristics of organisms present in the ecosystem and the distribution and abundance of those organisms over space and time. Species effects act in concert with the effects of climate, resource availability, and disturbance regimes in influencing ecosystem properties. Human activities can modify all of the above factors; here we focus on modification of these biotic controls. 
The scientific community has come to a broad consensus on many aspects of the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, including many points relevant to management of ecosystems. Further progress will require integration of knowledge about biotic and abiotic controls on ecosystem properties, how ecological communities are structured, and the forces driving species extinctions and invasions. To strengthen links to policy and management, we also need to integrate our ecological knowledge with understanding of the social and economic constraints of potential management practices. Understanding this complexity, while taking strong steps to minimize current losses of species, is necessary for responsible management of Earth's ecosystems and the diverse biota they contain. 
Based on our review of the scientific literature, we are certain of the following conclusions: 
1)_Species' functional characteristics strongly influence ecosystem properties. Functional characteristics operate in a variety of contexts, including effects of dominant species, keystone species, ecological engineers, and interactions among species (e.g., competition, facilitation, mutualism, disease, and predation). Relative abundance alone is not always a good predictor of the ecosystem-level importance of a species, as even relatively rare species (e.g., a keystone predator) can strongly influence pathways of energy and material flows. 
2)_Alteration of biota in ecosystems via species invasions and extinctions caused by human activities has altered ecosystem goods and services in many well-documented cases. Many of these changes are difficult, expensive, or impossible to reverse or fix with technological solutions. 
3)_The effects of species loss or changes in composition, and the mechanisms by which the effects manifest themselves, can differ among ecosystem properties, ecosystem types, and pathways of potential community change. 
4)_Some ecosystem properties are initially insensitive to species loss because (a) ecosystems may have multiple species that carry out similar functional roles, (b) some species may contribute relatively little to ecosystem properties, or (c) properties may be primarily controlled by abiotic environmental conditions. 
5)_More species are needed to insure a stable supply of ecosystem goods and services as spatial and temporal variability increases, which typically occurs as longer time periods and larger areas are considered. 
We have high confidence in the following conclusions: 
1)_Certain combinations of species are complementary in their patterns of resource use and can increase average rates of productivity and nutrient retention. At the same time, environmental conditions can influence the importance of complementarity in structuring communities. Identification of which and how many species act in a complementary way in complex communities is just beginning. 
2)_Susceptibility to invasion by exotic species is strongly influenced by species composition and, under similar environmental conditions, generally decreases with increasing species richness. However, several other factors, such as propagule pressure, disturbance regime, and resource availability also strongly influence invasion success and often override effects of species richness in comparisons across different sites or ecosystems. 
3)_Having a range of species that respond differently to different environmental perturbations can stabilize ecosystem process rates in response to disturbances and variation in abiotic conditions. Using practices that maintain a diversity of organisms of different functional effect and functional response types will help preserve a range of management options. 
Uncertainties remain and further research is necessary in the following areas: 
1)_Further resolution of the relationships among taxonomic diversity, functional diversity, and community structure is important for identifying mechanisms of biodiversity effects. 
2)_Multiple trophic levels are common to ecosystems but have been understudied in biodiversity/ecosystem functioning research. The response of ecosystem properties to varying composition and diversity of consumer organisms is much more complex than responses seen in experiments that vary only the diversity of primary producers. 
3)_Theoretical work on stability has outpaced experimental work, especially field research. We need long-term experiments to be able to assess temporal stability, as well as experimental perturbations to assess response to and recovery from a variety of disturbances. Design and analysis of such experiments must account for several factors that covary with species diversity. 
4)_Because biodiversity both responds to and influences ecosystem properties, understanding the feedbacks involved is necessary to integrate results from experimental communities with patterns seen at broader scales. Likely patterns of extinction and invasion need to be linked to different drivers of global change, the forces that structure communities, and controls on ecosystem properties for the development of effective management and conservation strategies. 
5)_This paper focuses primarily on terrestrial systems, with some coverage of freshwater systems, because that is where most empirical and theoretical study has focused. While the fundamental principles described here should apply to marine systems, further study of that realm is necessary. 
Despite some uncertainties about the mechanisms and circumstances under which diversity influences ecosystem properties, incorporating diversity effects into policy and management is essential, especially in making decisions involving large temporal and spatial scales. Sacrificing those aspects of ecosystems that are difficult or impossible to reconstruct, such as diversity, simply because we are not yet certain about the extent and mechanisms by which they affect ecosystem properties, will restrict future management options even further. It is incumbent upon ecologists to communicate this need, and the values that can derive from such a perspective, to those charged with economic and policy decision-making. 


"
211	Horn1972.pdf	"Horn, H.S.; MacArthur, R.H. 1972. Competition among Fugitive Species in a Harlequin Environment. Ecology 53:749-752"	4	"We examine the qualitative behavior of differential equations for the proportion of insular patches of each of two kinds of habitat occupied by each of two species with characteristics rates of migration between patches and of local extinction within a habitat. Certain migration and extinction rates result in stable coexistence, even of closely similar species; others lead to competitive exclusion, even when each species is competitively superior in one kind of habitat. For a community of many species in many habitats, we surmise qualitative limits to the subdivision of resources, and alternative stable communities. Our results extend to species that live in successional or ephemeral habitats. We therefore conjecture equilibrial theories for the number of patches of habitat occupied by insular species, fugitive plants and invertebrates, or infesting parasites. "
212	Houghton1983.pdf	"Houghton, R.A. et al. 1983. Changes in the Carbon Content of Terrestrial Biota and Soils between 1860 and 1980: A Net Release of CO2 to the Atmosphere. Ecological Monographs 53:235-262"	28	"Changes in land use over the past two centuries have caused a significant release of CO2 to the atmosphere from the terrestrial biota and soils. An analysis of this release is based on amounts of organic carbon within an ecosystem following changes such as harvest of forests; it is also based on rates of changes, such as conversion of forest to agriculture, deduced from agricultural and forestry statistics. A model is used to calculate the net amount of carbon stored or released each year by the biota and soils of 69 regional ecosystems. Some of the changes, such as afforestation, the growth of harvested forests, and buildup of soil organic matter, result in a storage of carbon; others, such as harvest of forests and increase in pasture and agricultural areas, result in a loss of carbon to the atmosphere. According to this analysis, there has been a net release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems worldwide since at least 1860. Until @?1960, the annual release was greater than release of carbon from fossil fuels. The total net release of carbon from terrestrial ecosystems since 1860 is estimated to have been 180 x 10^1^5 g (a range of estimates is 135-228 x 10^1^5 g). The estimated net release of carbon in 1980 was 1.8-4.7 x 10^1^5 g; for the 22 yr since 1958 the release of C was 38-76 x 10^1^5 g. The ranges reflect the differences among various estimates of forest biomass, soil carbon, and agricultural clearing. Improvements in the data on the clearing of tropical forests alone would reduce the range of estimates for 1980 by almost 60%. Estimates of the other major terms in the global carbon budget, the atmospheric increase in CO""2, the fossil fuel release of CO""2, and the oceanic uptake of CO""2, are all subject to uncertainties. The combined errors in these estimates are large enough that the global carbon budget appears balanced if the low estimate for the biotic release of carbon given above is used (1.8 x 10^1^5 g released in 1980) with the higher estimates of oceanic uptake. If higher estimates for biotic release are used, then the carbon budget does not balance, and the estimates of oceanic uptake or of other factors require revision."
213	Houle2010.pdf	"Houle, D. 2010. Colloquium papers: Numbering the hairs on our heads: the shared challenge and promise of phenomics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 Suppl:1793-1799"	7	"Evolution and medicine share a dependence on the genotype-phenotype map. Although genotypes exist and are inherited in a discrete space convenient for many sorts of analyses, the causation of key phenomena such as natural selection and disease takes place in a continuous phenotype space whose relationship to the genotype space is only dimly grasped. Direct study of genotypes with minimal reference to phenotypes is clearly insufficient to elucidate these phenomena. Phenomics, the comprehensive study of phenotypes, is therefore essential to understanding biology. For all of the advances in knowledge that a genomic approach to biology has brought, awareness is growing that many phenotypes are highly polygenic and susceptible to genetic interactions. Prime examples are common human diseases. Phenomic thinking is starting to take hold and yield results that reveal why it is so critical. The dimensionality of phenotypic data are often extremely high, suggesting that attempts to characterize phenotypes with a few key measurements are unlikely to be completely successful. However, once phenotypic data are obtained, causation can turn out to be unexpectedly simple. Phenotypic data can be informative about the past history of selection and unexpectedly predictive of long-term evolution. Comprehensive efforts to increase the throughput and range of phenotyping are an urgent priority."
214	Hubbell1979.pdf	"Hubbell, S.P. 1979. Tree dispersion, abundance, and diversity in a tropical dry forest. Science 203:1299-1309"	11	"Patterns of tree abundance and dispersion in a tropical deciduous (dry) forest are summarized. The generalization that tropical trees have spaced adults did not hold. All species were either clumped or randomly dispersed, with rare species more clumped than common species. Breeding system was unrelated to species abundance or dispersion, but clumping was related to mode of seed dispersal. Juvenile densities decreased approximately exponentially away from adults. Rare species gave evidence of poor reproductive performance compared with their performance when common in nearby forests. Patterns of relative species abundance in the dry forest are compared with patterns in other forests, and are explained by a simple stochastic model based on random-walk immigration and extinction set in motion by periodic community disturbance."
215	Hubbell1997.pdf	"Hubbell, S.P. 1997. A unified theory of biogeography and relative species abundance and its application to tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Coral Reefs 16:S9-S21"	0	"Theories of island biogeography and of relative species abundance are of central importance in biogeography and community ecology, yet these two bodies of theory heretofore have been largely unconnected. Incorporating speciation into the theory of island biogeography unexpectedly results in unification of these two theories. The unified theory predicts the existence of a fundamental biodiversity number &amp;#47 that controls not only species richness, but also relative species abundance in the source area metacommunity at equilibrium between speciation and extinction. With additional parameters for island size and migration rate, the theory also predicts relative species abundance on islands or local regions of continuous landscapes. Application of the theory to the biogeography and biodiversity of communities of tropical trees and reef-building corals are discussed. One important result is that only relatively modest migration rates are sufficient to dynamically couple the regional metacommunity and stabilize community structure on large spatiotemporal scales. Thus, regional, long-term compositional stasis in tropical rain forests and coral reefs can arise just as easily from the stabilizing effect of large numbers as from niche-assembly rules that limit species membership in communities. Because of the higher intrinsic vagility of corals, the theory predicts greater regional similarity in coral reef communities than in tropical tree communities."
216	Hubbell2006.pdf	"Hubbell, S.P. 2006. Neutral theory and the evolution of ecological equivalence. Ecology 87:1387-1398"	12	"Since the publication of the unified neutral theory in 2001, there has been much discussion of the theory, pro and con. The hypothesis of ecological equivalence is the fundamental yet controversial idea behind neutral theory. Assuming trophically similar species are demographically alike (symmetric) on a per capita basis is only an approximation, but it is equivalent to asking: How many of the patterns of ecological communities are the result of species similarities, rather than of species differences? The strategy behind neutral theory is to see how far one can get with the simplification of assuming ecological equivalence before introducing more complexity. In another paper, I review the empirical evidence that led me to hypothesize ecological equivalence among many of the tree species in the species-rich tropical forest on Barro Colorado Island (BCI). In this paper, I develop a simple model for the evolution of ecological equivalence or niche convergence, using as an example evolution of the suite of life history traits characteristic of shade tolerant tropical tree species. Although the model is simple, the conclusions from it seem likely to be robust. I conclude that ecological equivalence for resource use are likely to evolve easily and often, especially in species-rich communities that are dispersal and recruitment limited. In the case of the BCI forest, tree species are strongly dispersal- and recruitment-limited, not only because of restricted seed dispersal, but also because of low recruitment success due to heavy losses of the seedling stages to predators and pathogens and other abiotic stresses such as drought. These factors and the high species richness of the community strongly reduce the potential for competitive exclusion of functionally equivalent or nearly equivalent species."
217	Hudson1998.pdf	"Hudson, P.J.; Dobson, A.P.; Newborn, D. 1998. Prevention of population cycles by parasite removal. Science 282:2256-2258"	3	"The regular cyclic fluctuations in vertebrate numbers have intrigued scientists for more than 70 years, and yet the cause of such cycles has not been clearly demonstrated. Red grouse populations in Britain exhibit cyclic fluctuations in abundance, with periodic crashes. The hypothesis that these fluctuations are caused by the impact of a nematode parasite on host fecundity was tested by experimentally reducing parasite burdens in grouse. Treatment of the grouse population prevented population crashes, demonstrating that parasites were the cause of the cyclic fluctuations."
218	Huey2012.pdf	"Huey, R.B. et al. 2012. Predicting organismal vulnerability to climate warming: roles of behaviour, physiology and adaptation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 367:1665-1679"	15	"A recently developed integrative framework proposes that the vulnerability of a species to environmental change depends on the species' exposure and sensitivity to environmental change, its resilience to perturbations and its potential to adapt to change. These vulnerability criteria require behavioural, physiological and genetic data. With this information in hand, biologists can predict organisms most at risk from environmental change. Biologists and managers can then target organisms and habitats most at risk. Unfortunately, the required data (e.g. optimal physiological temperatures) are rarely available. Here, we evaluate the reliability of potential proxies (e.g. critical temperatures) that are often available for some groups. Several proxies for ectotherms are promising, but analogous ones for endotherms are lacking. We also develop a simple graphical model of how behavioural thermoregulation, acclimation and adaptation may interact to influence vulnerability over time. After considering this model together with the proxies available for physiological sensitivity to climate change, we conclude that ectotherms sharing vulnerability traits seem concentrated in lowland tropical forests. Their vulnerability may be exacerbated by negative biotic interactions. Whether tropical forest (or other) species can adapt to warming environments is unclear, as genetic and selective data are scant. Nevertheless, the prospects for tropical forest ectotherms appear grim."
219	Huffaker1958.pdf	"Huffaker, C.B. 1958. Experimental studies on predation: dispersion factors and predator-prey oscillations. Hilgardia 27:343-383"	41	No Abstract
220	Huisman1999.pdf	"Huisman, J.; Weissing, F.J. 1999. Biodiversity of plankton by species oscillations and chaos. Nature 402:407-410"	4	"Biodiversity has both fascinated and puzzled biologists. In aquatic ecosystems, the biodiversity puzzle is particularly troublesome, and known as the 'paradox of the plankton. Competition theory predicts that, at equilibrium, the number of coexisting species cannot exceed the number of limiting resources. For phytoplankton, only a few resources are potentially limiting: nitrogen, phosphorus, silicon, iron, light, inorganic carbon, and sometimes a few trace metals or vitamins. However, in natural waters dozens of phytoplankton species coexist. Here we offer a solution to the plankton paradox. First, we show that resource competition models can generate oscillations and chaos when species compete for three or more resources. Second, we show that these oscillations and chaotic fluctuations in species abundances allow the coexistence of many species on a handful of resources. This model of planktonic biodiversity may be broadly applicable to the biodiversity of many ecosystems."
221	Hunter1992.pdf	"Hunter, M.D.; Price, P.W. 1992. Playing Chutes and Ladders : Heterogeneity and the Relative Roles of Bottom-Up and Top- Down Forces in Natural Communities. Ecology 73:724-732"	1	No Abstract
222	Hurlbert1984.pdf	"Hurlbert, S.H. 1984. Pseudoreplication and the Design of Ecological Field Experiments. Ecological Monographs 54:187"	1	"Pseudoreplication is defined. as the use of inferential statistics to test for treatment effects with data from experiments where either treatments are not replicated (though samples may be) or replicates are not statistically independent. In ANOVA terminology, it is the testing for treatment effects with an error term inappropriate to the hypothesis being considered. Scrutiny of 176 experi-mental studies published between 1960 and the present revealed that pseudoreplication occurred in 27% of them, or 48% of all such studies that applied inferential statistics. The incidence of pseudo-replication is especially high in studies of marine benthos and small mammals. The critical features of controlled experimentation are reviewed. Nondemonic intrusion is defined as the impingement of chance events on an experiment in progress. As a safeguard against both it and preexisting gradients, interspersion of treatments is argued to be an obligatory feature of good design. Especially in small experiments, adequate interspersion can sometimes be assured only by dispensing with strict random-ization procedures. Comprehension of this conflict between interspersion and randomization is aided by distinguishing pre-layout (or conventional) and layout-specifit alpha (probability of type I error). Suggestions are offered to statisticians and editors of ecological j oumals as to how ecologists' under-standing of experimental design and statistics might be improved."
223	Hurlbert2004.pdf	"Hurlbert, S.H. 2004. On misinterpretations of pseudoreplication and related matters: a reply to Oksanen. Oikos 104:591-597"	7	"Pseudoreplication has become a widely accepted label for a certain class of statistical error common in the literature of ecology as well as of other fields. A wide-ranging critique by L. Oksanen recently published in this journal criticizes the term and concept and concludes it to be a ""pseudoissue,"" one reflecting an intellectual disease, ""a totally outdated epistemology"" known as ""inductionism."" The present article addresses some of Oksanen's complaints. His critique is based on a misconception of pseudoreplication, reflects unawareness of most of the literature on the topic, and mistakenly argues that the seriousness of the error is a function of whether an experiment is conducted in an inductive or deductive spirit. Oksanen's advocacy of using resources available for large scale ecology more for large numbers of experiments with unreplicated treatments than for fewer experiments with modest replication of treatments is unrealistic. It is based on an overly optimistic view of the ability of a meta-analysis to compensate for deficiencies, such as very noisy estimates of treatment effects, of the individual studies that are fed into it. A definition is offered of the term manipulative experiment, since adequate ones are lacking in the literature. Attention is called to the fact that for certain types of manipulative experiments lacking treatment replication, there are valid ways to test for treatment effects."
224	Hurlbert2009.pdf	"Hurlbert, S.H.; Lombardi, C.M. 2009. Final Collapse of the Neyman-Pearson Decision Theoretic Framework and Rise of the neoFisherian. Annales Zoologici Fennici 46:311-349"	39	"This essay grew out of an examination of one-tailed significance testing. One-tailed tests were little advocated by the founders of modern statistics but are widely used and recommended nowadays in the biological, behavioral and social sciences. The high frequency of their use in ecology and animal behavior and their logical indefensibility have been documented in a companion review paper. In the present one, we trace the roots of this problem and counter some attacks on significance testing in general. Roots include: the early but irrational dichotomization of the P scale and adoption of the `significant/non-significant' terminology; the mistaken notion that a high P value is evidence favoring the null hypothesis over the alternative hypothesis; and confusion over the distinction between statistical and research hypotheses. Resultant widespread misuse and misinterpretation of significance tests have also led to other problems, such as unjustifiable demands that reporting of P values be disallowed or greatly reduced and that reporting of confidence intervals and standardized effect sizes be required in their place. Our analysis of these matters thus leads us to a recommendation that for standard types of significance assessment the paleoFisherian and Neyman-Pearsonian paradigms be replaced by a neoFisherian one. The essence of the latter is that a critical [alpha] (probability of type I error) is not specified, the terms 'significant' and 'non-significant' are abandoned, that high P values lead only to suspended judgments, and that the so-called ""three-valued logic"" of Cox, Kaiser, Tukey, Tryon and Harris is adopted explicitly. Confidence intervals and bands, power analyses, and severity curves remain useful adjuncts in particular situations. Analyses conducted under this paradigm we term neoFisherian significance assessments (NFSA). Their role is assessment of the existence, sign and magnitude of statistical effects. The common label of null hypothesis significance tests (NHST) is retained for paleoFisherian and Neyman-Pearsonian approaches and their hybrids. The original Neyman-Pearson framework has no utility outside quality control type applications. Some advocates of Bayesian, likelihood and information-theoretic approaches to model selection have argued that P values and NFSAs are of little or no value, but those arguments do not withstand critical review. Champions of Bayesian methods in particular continue to overstate their value and relevance."
225	Huston1997.pdf	"Huston, M.A. 1997. Hidden treatments in ecological experiments: re-evaluating the ecosystem function of biodiversity. Oecologia 110:449-460"	12	"Interactions between biotic and abiotic processes complicate the design and interpretation of ecological experiments. Separating causality from simple correlation requires distinguishing among experimental treatments, experimental responses, and the many processes and properties that are correlated with either the treatments or the responses, or both. When an experimental manipulation has multiple components, but only one of them is identified as the experimental treatment, erroneous conclusions about cause and effect relationships are likely because the actual cause of any observed response may be ignored in the interpretation of the experimental results. This unrecognized cause of an observed response can be considered a ""hidden treatment"". Three types of hidden treatments are potential problems in biodiversity experiments: (1) abiotic conditions, such as resource levels, or biotic conditions, such as predation, which are intentionally or intentionally altered in order to create differences in species number for ""diversity"" treatments; (2) non-random selection of a species with particular attributes that produced treatment differences that exceed those due to ""diversity"" alone; and (3) the increased statistical probability of including a species with a dominant negative or positive effect (e.g., dense shade, or nitrogen fixation) in randomly selected groups of species of increasing number or ""diversity"". In each of these cases, treatments responses that are actually the result of the ""hidden treatment"" may be inadvertently attributed to variation in species diversity. Case studies re-evaluating three different types of biodiversity experiments demonstrate that the increases found in such ecosystem properties as productivity, nutrient use efficiency, and stability (all of which were attributed to higher levels of species diversity) were actually caused by ""hidden treatments"" that altered plant biomass and productivity."
226	Hutchinson1957.pdf	"Hutchinson, G.E. 1957. Concluding Remarks. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 22:415-427"	13	"This concluding survey1 of the problems con- sidered in the Symposium naturally falls into three sections. In the first brief section certain of the areas in which there is considerable difference in outlook are discussed with a view to ascertain- ing the nature of the differences in the points of view of workers in different parts of the field; no aspect of the Symposium has been more irnpor- tant than the reduction of areas of dispute. In the second section a rather detailed analysis of one particular problem is given, partly because the question, namely, the nature of the ecological niche and the validity of the principle of niche specificity has raised and continues to raise diffi- culties, and partly because discussion of this problem gives an opportunity to refer to new work of potential importance not otherwise con- sidered in the Symposium. The third section deals with possible directions for future research"
227	Hutchinson1959.pdf	"Hutchinson, G.E. 1959. Homage to Santa Rosalia or Why Are There So Many Kinds of Animals? The American Naturalist 93:145"	1	"Address of the President, American Society of Naturalists"
228	Hutchinson1961.pdf	"Hutchinson, G.E. 1961. The Paradox of the Plankton. The American Naturalist 95:137-145"	9	"The problem that I wish to discuss in the present contribution is raised by the very paradoxical situation of the plankton, particularly the phyto- plankton, of relatively large bodies of water."
229	Ingestad1981.pdf	"Ingestad, T. 1981. Nutrition and growth of birch and grey alder seedlings in low conductivity solutions and at varied relative rates of nutrient addition. Physiologia Plantarum 52:454-466"	13	"Birch (Betula verrucosa Ehrh.) and grey alder (Alnus incana Moench) seedlings were grown with varied relative addition rates of all nutrients, up to optimum for vegetative growth. The root medium was basically distilled water to which the nutrients, contained in stock solutions in fixed proportions, were added every second hour and in exponentially increased amounts for consumption during the subsequent period. The nutrient weight proportions previously found to be required in birch (100 N:65 K:13 P) were used in all treatments. However, the nutrient proportions required in grey alder were found to be somewhat different (100 N:50 K:18 P). The use of the required proportions in the additions was important for maintenance of maximum growth, efficient nutrient utilization, and low concentrations in the root medium. Luxury consumption and inefficiency occurred at high concentrations. The results show that the nutrient requirements are sufficiently defined, for different relative growth rates, by the nutrient proportions and the relative addition rate. No clear relationships were found between conductivity or concentration in the root medium and the addition rate, net uptake rate, nutrient status, or relative growth rate. The results are in good agreement with data from low concentration and depletion experiments reported in the literature, showing that non-limited uptake rates occur down to very low concentrations. Thus, there is strong evidence that concentration has been incorrectly used when applied as the treatment variable for plant nutrition in plant science and cultivation practice. The dominant factors in sub-optimum and optimum nutrition are the amounts of nutrients available per unit of time, the growth rate, and the nutrient proportions. At low concentration levels, physical factors such as stirring and flow rate of nutrient solution and boundary layer effects are decisive for the rates with which the nutrients become available to the roots. Therefore, at low levels, concentration alone cannot be used as the factor determining nutrient uptake rate. At high levels, concentration is effective as a supra-optimum factor and increased internal percentage contents cause decreased uptake efficiency, thus counter-acting the concentration effect. Nitrogen effects dominated the stress indications when the internal nitrogen percentage content decreased from optimum to the level of the treatments in the beginning of the experiments. Leaf deficiency symptoms disappeared and the root/shoot ratio change ceased when nitrogen status stabilized. Strong linear regressions were found between any two of the variables: relative addition rate of nutrients, relative growth rate, and nutrient status."
230	Jackson2001.pdf	"Jackson, J.B. et al. 2001. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293:629-37"	9	"Ecological extinction caused by overfishing precedes all other pervasive human disturbance to coastal ecosystems, including pollution, degradation of water quality, and anthropogenic climate change. Historical abundances of large consumer species were fantastically large in comparison with recent observations. Paleoecological, archaeological, and historical data show that time lags of decades to centuries occurred between the onset of overfishing and consequent changes in ecological communities, because unfished species of similar trophic level assumed the ecological roles of overfished species until they too were overfished or died of epidemic diseases related to overcrowding. Retrospective data not only help to clarify underlying causes and rates of ecological change, but they also demonstrate achievable goals for restoration and management of coastal ecosystems that could not even be contemplated based on the limited perspective of recent observations alone."
231	Jackson2009.pdf	"Jackson, S.T. et al. 2009. Ecology and the ratchet of events: Climate variability, niche dimensions, and species distributions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:19685-19692"	8	"Climate change in the coming centuries will be characterized by interannual, decadal, and multidecadal fluctuations superimposed on anthropogenic trends. Predicting ecological and biogeographic responses to these changes constitutes an immense challenge for ecologists. Perspectives from climatic and ecological history indicate that responses will be laden with contingencies, resulting from episodic climatic events interacting with demographic and colonization events. This effect is compounded by the dependency of environmental sensitivity upon life-stage for many species. Climate variables often used in empirical niche models may become decoupled from the proximal variables that directly influence individuals and populations. Greater predictive capacity, and more-fundamental ecological and biogeographic understanding, will come from integration of correlational niche modeling with mechanistic niche modeling, dynamic ecological modeling, targeted experiments, and systematic observations of past and present patterns and dynamics."
232	Jackson2000.pdf	"Jackson, S.T.; Overpeck, J.T. 2000. Responses of plant populations and communities to environmental changes of the late Quaternary. Paleobiology 26:194-220"	27	"The environmental and biotic history of the late Quaternary represents a critical junction between ecology, global change studies, and pre-Quaternary paleobiology. Late Quaternary records indicate the modes and mechanisms of environmental variation and biotic responses at timescales of 10(1)-10(4) years. Climatic changes of the late Quaternary have occurred continuously across a wide range of temporal scales, with the magnitude of change generally increasing with time span. Responses of terrestrial plant populations have ranged from tolerance in situ to moderate shifts in habitat to migration and/or extinction, depending on magnitudes and rates of environmental change. Species assemblages have been disaggregated and recombined, forming a changing array of vegetation patterns on the landscape. These patterns of change are characteristic of terrestrial plants and animals but may not be representative of all other life-forms or habitats. Complexity of response, particularly extent of species recombination, depends in part on the nature of the underlying environmental gradients and how they change through time. Environmental gradients in certain habitats may change in relatively simple fashion, allowing long-term persistence of species associations and spatial patterns. Consideration of late Quaternary climatic changes indicates that both the rate and magnitude of climatic changes anticipated for the coming century are unprecedented, presenting unique challenges to the biota of the planet."
233	Janzen1967.pdf	Janzen D.H. 1967. Why mountain passes are higher in the tropics. The American Naturalist 101:233	1	"This paper is designed to draw attention to the relation between tropical climatic uniformity at a given site and the effectiveness of topographic bar- riers adjacent to the site in preventing movements of plants and animals. This is not an attempt to explain tropical species diversity (see Pianka, 1966, for a review of this subject), but rather to discuss a factor that should be considered in any discussion of the relation between topographic and climatic diversity, and population isolation. Simpson (1964) states that ""Small population ranges and numerous barriers against the spread and sym- patry of related populations would therefore tend to increase density of species in a region as a whole. It will be suggested below that this is a factor in the increase of species densities in regions of high topographic relief. I do not, however, know of any evidence that it is more general or more effective in the tropics."" I believe that the climatic regimes discussed below, and the reactions of organisms to them, indicate that topographic barriers may be more effective in the tropics. Mountain barriers and their temperature gradients in Central America, as contrasted to those in North America, are used as examples; but it is believed that the central idea equally applies to other tropical areas, types of barriers, and physical parameters. There are three thoughts central to the argument to be developed: (1) in respect to temperature, it is the temperature gradient across a mountain range which determines its effectiveness as a barrier, rather than the abso- lute height; (2) in Central America, terrestrial temperature regimes are gen- erally more uniform than North American ones, and differ in their patterns of overlap across geographic barriers; and (3) it can be assumed that animals and plants are evolutionarily adapted to, and/or have the ability to acclimate to, the temperatures normally encountered in their temporal and geographic habitat (or microhabitat)."
234	Janzen1982.pdf	"Janzen, D.H.; Martin, P.S. 1982. Neotropical Anachronisms: The Fruits the Gomphotheres Ate. Science 215:19-27"	9	"Frugivory by extinct horses, gomphotheres, ground sloths, and other Pleistocene megafauna offers a key to understanding certain plant reproductive traits in Central American lowland forests. When over 15 genera of Central American large herbivores became extinct roughly 10,000 years ago, seed dispersal and subsequent distributions of many plant species were altered. Introduction of horses and cattle may have in part restored the local ranges of such trees as jicaro (Crescentia alata) and guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum) that had large mammals as dispersal agents. Plant distributions in neotropical forest and grassland mixes that are moderately and patchily browsed by free-ranging livestock may be more like those before megafaunal extinction than were those present at the time of Spanish conquest."
235	Janzen1970.pdf	"Janzen, D.H. 1970. Herbivores and the Number of Tree Species in Tropical Forests. The American Naturalist 104:501"	1	"Wet lowland tropical forests characteristically have many tree species and low density of adults of each species compared with temperate-zone forests in habitats of similar areal extent, topographic diversity, and edaphic complexity (Black, Dobzhansky, and Pavan 1950 ; Richards 1952 ; Poore 1968; Ashton 1969). Despite reports that adults of some species of lowland tropical trees show clumped distributions (Poore 1968; Ashton 1969), I believe that a third generalization is possible about tropical tree species as contrasted with temperate ones: for most species of lowland tropical trees, adults do not produce new adults in their immediate vicinity (where most seeds fall). Because of this, most adults of a given tree species appear to be more regularly distributed than if the probability of a new adult appearing at a point in the forest were proportional to the number of seeds arriving at that point. This generalization is based on my observa- tions in Central and South American mainland forests, on discussions with foresters familiar with these forests, on discussions with J. H. Connell about Australian rain forests, and on data given in the papers cited above."
236	Johnson2002.pdf	"Johnson, C.N. 2002. Determinants of loss of mammal species during the Late Quaternary 'megafauna' extinctions: life history and ecology, but not body size. Proceedings of the royal society B-Biological Sciences 269:2221-2227"	7	"Extinctions of megafauna species during the Late Quaternary dramatically reduced the global diversity of mammals. There is intense debate over the causes of these extinctions, especially regarding the extent to which humans were involved. Most previous analyses of this question have focused on chronologies of extinction and on the archaeological evidence for human-megafauna interaction. Here, I take an alternative approach: comparison of the biological traits of extinct species with those of survivors. I use this to demonstrate two general features of the selectivity of Late Quaternary mammal extinctions in Australia, Eurasia, the Americas and Madagascar. First, large size was not directly related to risk of extinction; rather, species with slow reproductive rates were at high risk regardless of their body size. This finding rejects the 'blitzkrieg' model of overkill, in which extinctions were completed during brief intervals of selective hunting of large-bodied prey. Second, species that survived despite having low reproductive rates typically occurred in closed habitats and many were arboreal or nocturnal. Such traits would have reduced their exposure to direct interaction with people. Therefore, although this analysis rejects blitzkrieg as a general scenario for the mammal megafauna extinctions, it is consistent with extinctions being due to interaction with human populations."
237	Johnson1980.pdf	"Johnson, D. 1980. The comparison of usage and availability measurements for evaluating resource preference. Ecology 61:65-71"	7	"Modern ecological research often involves the comparison of the usage of habitat types or food items to the availability of those resources to the animal. Widely used methods of determining preference from measurements of usage and availability depend critically on the array of components that the researcher, often with a degree of arbitrariness, deems available to the animal. This paper proposes a new method, based on ranks of components by usage and by availability. A virtue of the rank procedure is that it provides comparable results whether a questionable component is included or excluded from consideration. Statistical tests of significance are given for the method. The paper also offers a hierarchical ordering of selection processes. This hierarchy resolves certain inconsistencies among studies of selection and is compatible with the analytic technique offered in the paper. Key"
238	Johnson2004.pdf	"Johnson, J.B.; Omland, K.S. 2004. Model selection in ecology and evolution. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19:101-108"	8	"Recently, researchers in several areas of ecology and evolution have begun to change the way in which they analyze data and make biological inferences. Rather than the traditional null hypothesis testing approach, they have adopted an approach called model selection, in which several competing hypotheses are simultaneously confronted with data. Model selection can be used to identify a single best model, thus lending support to one particular hypothesis, or it can be used to make inferences based on weighted support from a complete set of competing models. Model selection is widely accepted and well developed in certain fields, most notably in molecular systematics and mark-recapture analysis. However, it is now gaining support in several other areas, from molecular evolution to landscape ecology. Here, we outline the steps of model selection and highlight several ways that it is now being implemented. By adopting this approach, researchers in ecology and evolution will find a valuable alternative to traditional null hypothesis testing, especially when more than one hypothesis is plausible."
239	Johnson1997.pdf	"Johnson, N.C.; Graham, J.H.; Smith, F.A. 1997. Functioning of mycorrhizal associations along the mutualism-parasitism continuum. New Phytologist 135:575-586"	12	"A great diversity of plants and fungi engage in mycorrhizal associations. In natural habitats, and in an ecologically meaningful time span, these associations have evolved to improve the fitness of both plant and fungal symbionts. In systems managed by humans, mycorrhizal associations often improve plant productivity, but this is not always the case. Mycorrhizal fungi might be considered to be parasitic on plants when net cost of the symbiosis exceeds net benefits. Parasitism can be developmentally induced, environmentally induced, or possibly genotypically induced. Morphological, phenological, and physiological characteristics of the symbionts influence the functioning of mycorrhizas at an individual scale. Biotic and abiotic factors at the rhizosphere, community, and ecosystem scales further mediate mycorrhizal functioning. Despite the complexity of mycorrhizal associations, it might be possible to construct predictive models of mycorrhizal functioning. These models will need to incorporate variables and parameters that account for differences in plant responses to, and control of, mycorrhizal fungi, and differences in fungal effects on, and responses to, the plant. Developing and testing quantitative models of mycorrhizal functioning in the real world requires creative experimental manipulations and measurements. This work will be facilitated by recent advances in molecular and biochemical techniques. A greater understanding of how mycorrhizas function in complex natural systems is a prerequisite to managing them in agriculture, forestry, and restoration."
240	Johnson2010.pdf	"Johnson, N.C. 2010. Resource stoichiometry elucidates the structure and function of arbuscular mycorrhizas across scales. New Phytologist 185:631-647"	17	"Despite the fact that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) associations are among the most ancient, abundant and important symbioses in terrestrial ecosystems, there are currently few unifying theories that can be used to help understand the factors that control their structure and function. This review explores how a stoichiometric perspective facilitates integration of three complementary ecological and evolutionary models of mycorrhizal structure and function. AM symbiotic function should be governed by the relative availability of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus (trade balance model) and allocation to plant and fungal structures should depend on the availabilities of these resources (functional equilibrium model). Moreover, in an evolutionary framework, communities of plants and AM fungi are predicted to adapt to each other and their local soil environment (co-adaptation model). Anthropogenic enrichment of essential resources in the environment is known to impact AM symbioses. A more predictive theory of AM structure and function will help us to better understand how these impacts may influence plant communities and ecosystem properties."
241	Jones1994.pdf	Jones C.G.; Lawton J. H.; Shachak M. 1994. Organisms as ecosystem engineers. Oikos 69:373-386	14	"Ecosystem engineers are organisms directly that or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats. Autogenic engineers (e.g. corals, or trees) change the environment via their own physical structures (i.e. their living and dead tissues). Allogenic engineers (e.g. woodpeckers, beavers) change the environment by transforming or non-living living materials from one physical state to another, via mechanical or other means. The direct provision of resources to other species, in the form of living or dead tissues is not engineering. Organisms act as engineers when they modulate the supply of a resource or resources other than themselves. We recognise and define five types of engineering and provide examples. Humans are allogenic engineers par excellence, and also mimic the behaviour of autogenic engineers, for example by constructing glasshouses. We explore related concepts including the notions of extended phenotypes and keystone species. Some (but not all) products of ecosystem engineering are extended phenotypes. Many (perhaps most) impacts of keystone species include not only trophic effects, but also engineers and engineering. Engineers differ in their impacts. The biggest effects are attributable to species with large per capita impacts, living at high densities, over large areas for a long time, giving rise to structures that persist for millennia and that modulate many resource flows (e.g. mima mounds created by fossorial rodents). The ephemeral nests constructed by small, passerine birds lie at the opposite end of this continuum. We provide a tentative research agenda for an exploration of the phenom- enon of organisms as ecosystem engineers, and suggest that all habitats on earth support, and are influenced by, ecosystem engineers."
242	Karban1999.pdf	"Karban, R. et al. 1999. Induced plant responses and information content about risk of herbivory. Trends in ecology & evolution 14:443-447"	5	"Plant defenses are plastic when a single genotype can produce different phenotypes depending upon the environment. Plastic responses might be favored by selection only if plants can respond appropriately to reliable information in their environments. Recent findings indicate that when information is accurate, plants can benefit by changing their defenses appropriately but, when information is inaccurate they produce inappropriate defenses and have lower fitness. Plants can potentially use a variety of cues to adjust their defensive phenotypes appropriately. The relationship between the information about risk of herbivory and plant defense can be evaluated by determining if the information available to plants is reliable enough to support the evolution of plastic-induced defenses."
243	Kareiva1987.pdf	"Kareiva, P.; Odell, G. 1987. Swarms of predators exhibit ""prey taxis"" if individual predators use restricted area search. American Naturalist 130:233-270"	38	"We show that if individual predators restrict the area of their search following an encounter with prey, then this behavior translates into populations of predators flowing toward regions of high prey density. This result requires only that predators move at a constant speed but change their direction of movement more often when their stomachs are full and that increases in prey density increase the feeding rate and stomach fullness of predators. The partial differential equation that is derived by assuming such behavior includes terms representing both random motion and taxis on the part of the predator. The form and magnitude of these terms can be estimated by quantifying how prey density influences the frequency of directional changes in a foraging predator and by obtaining functional-response curves for predators that have been starved for different lengths of time. In general, the strength of a predator's taxis or aggregation response depends on its average velocity of search and on the sensitivity of its turning frequency to changes in prey density, both of which are easily measured. Thus, we show how short-term observations of individual predators can lead to a complete macroscopic description of predator-prey interactions in a spatially distributed environment. We demonstrate the use of our model by applying it to the spatial dynamics of an interaction between goldenrod aphids (Uroleucon nigrotuberculatum) and adult ladybug beetles (Coccinella septempunctata). Although in this specific case the model is limited to predictions on the order of weeks, we show how it might be used to evaluate the effectiveness of different predators as biological control agents. Our particular mechanistic model indicates that the consequences of aggregation for prey control depend on the rates of taxis relative to the rates of prey population growth; only sometimes is predator aggregation sufficient to halt an incipient prey outbreak."
244	Kareiva1983.pdf	"Kareiva, P.M.; Shigesada, N. 1983. Analyzing insect movement as a correlated random walk. Oecologia 56:234-238"	5	"This paper develops a procedure for quantify-ing movement sequences in terms of move length and turning angle probability distributions. By assuming that movement is a correlated random walk, we derive a formula that relates expected square displacements to the number of consecutive moves. We show this displace-ment formula can be used to highlight the consequences of different searching behaviors (i.e. different probability distributions of turning angles or move lengths). Obser-vations of Pieris rapae (cabbage white butterfly) flight and Battus philenor (pipe-vine swallowtail) crawling are analyzed as a correlated random walk. The formula that we derive aptly predicts that net displacements of ovipositing cabbage white butterflies. In other circum-stances, however, net displacements are not well-described by our correlated random walk formula; in these ex-amples movement must represent a more complicated process than a simple correlated random walk. We suggest that progress might be made by analyzing these more complicated cases in terms of higher order markov processes. 1969). Alternatively, much progress has also been made by describing movement with analytical models that rely on the assumption of random motion (see especially, the pioneering work of Broadbent and Kendall 1953; Skellam 1951). In this paper, we extend an earlier formula concerning discrete random walks (see appendix of Jones 1977) and develop an analytic expression for net displace-ment in a correlated random walk. The formula that we develop fills a gap somewhere between the powerful general diffusion models of Skellam (1951) and the realistic detailed simulations of Jones (1977). One of the advantages of our approach is that it produces a summary of behavior that enables compari-sons to be made between different organisms, or for the same organism in different situations. In particular, by making the assumption of correlated random movement, we derive a formula for expected net displacement in terms of easily observed distance and directionality parameters. This formula can serve as a means for exploring the consequences of varying rules of movement. We illustrate the approach by applying it to two examples of insect movement."
245	Kawecki2004.pdf	"Kawecki, T.J.; Ebert, D. 2004. Conceptual issues in local adaptation. Ecology Letters 7:1225-1241"	17	"Studies of local adaptation provide important insights into the power of natural selection relative to gene flow and other evolutionary forces. They are a paradigm for testing evolutionary hypotheses about traits favoured by particular environmental factors. This paper is an attempt to summarize the conceptual framework for local adaptation studies. We first review theoretical work relevant for local adaptation. Then we discuss reciprocal transplant and common garden experiments designed to detect local adaptation in the pattern of deme x habitat interaction for fitness. Finally, we review research questions and approaches to studying the processes of local adaptation - divergent natural selection, dispersal and gene flow, and other processes affecting adaptive differentiation of local demes. We advocate multifaceted approaches to the study of local adaptation, and stress the need for experiments explicitly addressing hypotheses about the role of particular ecological and genetic factors that promote or hinder local adaptation. Experimental evolution of replicated populations in controlled spatially heterogeneous environments allow direct tests of such hypotheses, and thus would be a valuable way to complement research on natural populations."
246	Kearney2009.pdf	"Kearney, M.; Porter, W. 2009. Mechanistic niche modelling: combining physiological and spatial data to predict species'ranges. Ecology Letters 12:334-350"	17	"Species distribution models (SDMs) use spatial environmental data to make inferences on species� range limits and habitat suitability. Conceptually, these models aim to determine and map components of a species� ecological niche through space and time, and they have become important tools in pure and applied ecology and evolutionary biology. Most approaches are correlative in that they statistically link spatial data to species distribution records. An alternative strategy is to explicitly incorporate the mechanistic links between the functional traits of organisms and their environments into SDMs. Here, we review how the principles of biophysical ecology can be used to link spatial data to the physiological responses and constraints of organisms. This provides a mechanistic view of the fundamental niche which can then be mapped to the landscape to infer range constraints. We show how physiologically based SDMs can be developed for different organisms in different environmental contexts. Mechanistic SDMs have different strengths and weaknesses to correlative approaches, and there are many exciting and unexplored prospects for integrating the two approaches. As physiological knowledge becomes better integrated into SDMs, we will make more robust predictions of range shifts in novel or non-equilibrium contexts such as invasions, translocations, climate change and evolutionary shifts."
247	Keddy1992.pdf	"Keddy, P.A. 1992. Assembly and response rules: two goals for predictive community ecology. Journal of Vegetation Science 3:157-164"	8	"Assembly rules provide one possible unifying frame-work for community ecology. Given a species pool, and measured traits for each species, the objective is to specify which traits (and therefore which subset of species) will occur in a particular environment. Because the problem primarily involves traits and environments. answers should be generalizable to systems with very different taxonomic composition. In this context, the environment functions like a filter (or sieve) removing all species lacking specified combinations of traits. In this way, assembly rules are a community level analogue of natural selection. Response rules follow a similar process except that they transform a vector of species abundances to a new vector using the same information. Examples already exist from a range of habitats, scales. and kinds of organisms."
248	Keddy2005.pdf	"Keddy, P.A. 2005. Milestones in ecological thought - A canon for plant ecology. Journal of Vegetation Science 16:145-150"	6	"Scientific progress in plant ecology is at risk of being obscured by increasing ignorance of major works in the field. The driving force seems to be the twin seductions Of novelty and crowd psychology. I illustrate this tendency with three examples from plant community ecology that span the past thirty years of ecological research. I offer, as one solution, the concept of a canon: a short list of essential books that we assume all students and co-workers have read, a short list that summarizes the wisdom of the discipline. A canon can be likened to DNA, be it in music, art, or science, as it carries forward through time the key ideas that have worked in the past. Without a canon, there is no memory of past achievement. no context for appreciating current work, and no way of judging the quality of newer productions. I suggest 20 essential books (the short canon), and 22 complementary readings, for a total of 42 books needed in any young professional's library on plant ecology."
249	Keller1998.pdf	Keller L.; Ross K.G. 1998. Selfish genes: a green beard in the red fire ant. Nature 394:573-575	3	"A �green-beard� gene is defined as a gene that causes a phenotypic effect (such as the presence of a green beard or any other conspicuous feature), allows the bearer of this feature to recognize it in other individuals, and causes the bearer to behave differently towards other individuals depending on whether or not they possess the feature1�3 theoretical grounds to be agents mediating both altruism and intragenomic conflicts1,2 have been identified4,5 . Such genes have been proposed on , but until now few, if any, of these genes . Here we provide evidence of a green- beard gene in the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta.In polygyne (multiple-queen) colonies, all egg-laying queens are Bb heterozygotes at the locus Gp-9 (ref. 6). Previous studies sug- gested that bb females die prematurely from intrinsic causes6 ;we now show that BB queens initiating reproduction are killed by workers, and that it is primarily Bb rather than BB workers that are responsible for these executions. This implies that allele Gp- 9b is linked to a green-beard allele that preferentially induces workers bearing the allele to kill all queens that do not bear it. Workers appear to distinguish"
250	Kelly2013.pdf	"Kelly, M.W.; Padilla-Gamino, J.L.; Hofmann, G.E. 2013. Natural variation and the capacity to adapt to ocean acidification in the keystone sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Global Change Biology 19:2536-2546"	11	"A rapidly growing body of literature documents the potential negative effects of CO2 -driven ocean acidification (OA) on marine organisms. However, nearly all this work has focused on the effects of future conditions on modern populations, neglecting the role of adaptation. Rapid evolution can alter demographic responses to environmental change, ultimately affecting the likelihood of population persistence, but the capacity for adaptation will differ among populations and species. Here, we measure the capacity of the ecologically important purple sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus to adapt to OA, using a breeding experiment to estimate additive genetic variance for larval size (an important component of fitness) under future high-pCO2 /low-pH conditions. Although larvae reared under future conditions were smaller than those reared under present-day conditions, we show that there is also abundant genetic variation for body size under elevated pCO2 , indicating that this trait can evolve. The observed heritability of size was 0.40   � 0.32 (95% CI) under low pCO2 , and 0.50   � 0.30 under high-pCO2 conditions. Accounting for the observed genetic variation in models of future larval size and demographic rates substantially alters projections of performance for this species in the future ocean. Importantly, our model shows that after incorporating the effects of adaptation, the OA-driven decrease in population growth rate is up to 50% smaller, than that predicted by the 'no-adaptation' scenario. Adults used in the experiment were collected from two sites on the coast of the Northeast Pacific that are characterized by different pH regimes, as measured by autonomous sensors. Comparing results between sites, we also found subtle differences in larval size under high-pCO2 rearing conditions, consistent with local adaptation to carbonate chemistry in the field. These results suggest that spatially varying selection may help to maintain genetic variation necessary for adaptation to future OA."
251	Kerr2002.pdf	"Kerr, B. et al. 2002. Local dispersal promotes biodiversity in a real-life game of rock-paper-scissors. Nature 418:171-174"	0	"One of the central aims of ecology is to identify mechanisms that maintain biodiversity. Numerous theoretical models have shown that competing species can coexist if ecological processes such as dispersal, movement, and interaction occur over small spatial scales. In particular, this may be the case for non-transitive communities, that is, those without strict competitive hierarchies. The classic non-transitive system involves a community of three competing species satisfying a relationship similar to the children's game rock-paper-scissors, where rock crushes scissors, scissors cuts paper, and paper covers rock. Such relationships have been demonstrated in several natural systems. Some models predict that local interaction and dispersal are sufficient to ensure coexistence of all three species in such a community, whereas diversity is lost when ecological processes occur over larger scales. Here, we test these predictions empirically using a non-transitive model community containing three populations of Escherichia coli. We find that diversity is rapidly lost in our experimental community when dispersal and interaction occur over relatively large spatial scales, whereas all populations coexist when ecological processes are localized."
252	Kettlewell1955.pdf	"Kettlewell, H.B.D. 1955. Selection experiments on industrial malanism in the Lepidoptera. Heredity 9:323-342"	20	No Abstract
253	Kiers2010.pdf	"Kiers, T.E. et al. 2010. Mutualisms in a changing world: an evolutionary perspective. Ecology Letters 13:1459-1474"	16	"There is growing concern that rapid environmental degradation threatens mutualistic interactions. Because mutualisms can bind species to a common fate, mutualism breakdown has the potential to expand and accelerate effects of global change on biodiversity loss and ecosystem disruption. The current focus on the ecological dynamics of mutualism under global change has skirted fundamental evolutionary issues. Here, we develop an evolutionary perspective on mutualism breakdown to complement the ecological perspective, by focusing on three processes: (1) shifts from mutualism to antagonism, (2) switches to novel partners and (3) mutualism abandonment. We then identify the evolutionary factors that may make particular classes of mutualisms especially susceptible or resistant to breakdown and discuss how communities harbouring mutualisms may be affected by these evolutionary responses. We propose a template for evolutionary research on mutualism resilience and identify conservation approaches that may help conserve targeted mutualisms in the face of environmental change."
254	Kimura1968.pdf	"Kimura, M. 1968. Evolutionary Rate at the Molecular Level. Nature 217:624-626"	3	No Abstract
255	Kingsolver2001.pdf	"Kingsolver, J.G. et al. 2001. The strength of phenotypic selection in natural populations. The American Naturalist 157:245-261"	17	"How strong is phenotypic selection on quantitative traits in the wild? We reviewed the literature from 1984 through 1997 for studies that estimated the strength of linear and quadratic selection in terms of standardized selection gradients or differentials on natural variation in quantitative traits for field populations. We tabulated 63 published studies of 62 species that reported over 2,500 estimates of linear or quadratic selection. More than 80% of the estimates were for morphological traits; there is very little data for behavioral or physiological traits. Most published selection studies were unreplicated and had sample sizes below 135 individuals, resulting in low statistical power to detect selection of the magnitude typically reported for natural populations. The absolute values of linear selection gradients |beta| were exponentially distributed with an overall median of 0.16, suggesting that strong directional selection was uncommon. The values of |beta| for selection on morphological and on life-history/phenological traits were significantly different: on average, selection on morphology was stronger than selection on phenology/life history. Similarly, the values of |beta| for selection via aspects of survival, fecundity, and mating success were significantly different: on average, selection on mating success was stronger than on survival. Comparisons of estimated linear selection gradients and differentials suggest that indirect components of phenotypic selection were usually modest relative to direct components. The absolute values of quadratic selection gradients |gamma| were exponentially distributed with an overall median of only 0.10, suggesting that quadratic selection is typically quite weak. The distribution of gamma values was symmetric about 0, providing no evidence that stabilizing selection is stronger or more common than disruptive selection in nature."
256	Kirkpatrick1997.pdf	"Kirkpatrick, M.; Barton, N.H. 2014. Evolution of a species' range. The American Naturalist 150:44927"	1	"Gene flow from the center of a species� range can stymie adaptation at the periphery and prevent the range from expanding outward. We study this process using simple models that track both demography and the evolution of a quantitative trait in a population that is continu- ously distributed in space. Stabilizing selection acts on the trait and favors an optimum pheno- type that changes linearly across the habitat. One of three outcomes is possible: the species will become extinct, expand to fill all of the available habitat, or be confined to a limited range in which it is sufficiently adapted to allow population growth. When the environment changes rap- idly in space, increased migration inhibits local adaptation and so decreases the species� total population size. Gene flow can cause enough maladaptation that the peripheral half of a species� range acts as a demographic sink. The trait�s genetic variance has little effect on species persis- tence or the size of the range when gene flow is sufficiently strong to keep population densities far below the carrying capacity throughout the range, but it can increase the range width and population size of an abundant species. Under some conditions, a small parameter change can dramatically shift the balance between gene flow and local adaptation, allowing a species with a limited range to suddenly expand to fill all the available habitat."
257	Koerner2006.pdf	"K�rner, C. 2006. Plant CO2 responses: An issue of definition, time and resource supply. New Phytol 172:393-411"	19	"In this review I am drawing attention to some constraints and biases in CO2 enrichment experiments and the analysis of data in the literature. Conclusions drawn from experimental works differ when the data are grouped in a way such that the relative frequency of test conditions does not determine the emerging trends, for instance unrealistically strong CO2-'fertilization' effects, which are in conflict with some basic ecological principles. I suggest separating three test conditions: uncoupled systems (plants not depending in a natural nutrient cycle) (I); expanding systems, in which plants are given ample space and time to explore otherwise limited resources (II); and fully coupled systems in which the natural nutrient cycling governs growth at steady-state leaf area index (LAI) and fine root renewal (III). Data for 10 type III experiments yield rather moderate effects of elevated CO2 on plant biomass production, if any. In steady-state grassland, the effects are water-related; in closed tree stands, initial effects decline rapidly with time. Plant-soil coupling (soil conditions) deserves far greater attention than plant-atmosphere coupling (CO2 enrichment technology)."
258	Koerner2015.pdf	"K�rner, C. 2015. Paradigm shift in plant growth control. Current Opinion in Plant Biology 25:107-114"	8	"For plants to grow they need resources and appropriate conditions that these resources are converted into biomass. While acknowledging the importance of co-drivers, the classical view is still that carbon, that is, photosynthetic CO 2 uptake, ranks above any other drivers of plant growth. Hence, theory and modelling of growth traditionally is carbon centric. Here, I suggest that this view is not reflecting reality, but emerged from the availability of methods and process understanding at leaf level. In most cases, poorly understood processes of tissue formation and cell growth are governing carbon demand, and thus, CO 2 uptake. Carbon can only be converted into biomass to the extent chemical elements other than carbon, temperature or cell turgor permit."
259	Kot1996.PDF	"Kot, M.; Lewis, M.A.; Van Den Driessche, P. 1996. Dispersal data and the spread of invading organisms. Ecology 77:2027-2042"	16	"Models that describe the spread of invading organisms often assume that the dispersal distances of propagules are normally distributed. In contrast, measured dispersal curves are typically leptokurtic, not normal. In this paper, we consider a class of models, integrodifference equations, that directly incorporate detailed dispersal data as well as population growth dynamics. We provide explicit formulas for the speed of invasion for compensatory growth and for different choices of the propagule redistribution kernel and apply these formulas to the spread of D. pseudoobscura. We observe that: (1) the speed of invasion of a spreading population is extremely sensitive to the precise shape of the redistribution kernel and, in particular, to the tail of the distribution; (2) fat-tailed kernels can generate accelerating invasions rather than constant-speed travelling waves; (3) normal redistribution kernels (and by inference, many reaction-diffusion models) may grossly underestimate rates of spread of invading populations in comparison with models that incorporate more realistic leptokurtic distributions; and (4) the relative superiority of different redistribution kernels depends, in general, on the precise magnitude of the net reproductive rate. The addition of an Allee effect to an integrodifference equation may decrease the overall rate of spread. An Allee effect may also introduce a critical range; the population must surpass this spatial threshold in order to invade successfully. Fat-tailed kernels and Allee effects provide alternative explanations for the accelerating rates of spread observed for many invasions"
260	Kunin1993.pdf	"Kunin, W.E.; Gaston, K.J. 1993. The biology of rarity: Patterns, causes and consequences. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8:298-301"	4	"There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that locally rare and geographically restricted species may have characteristics that differ from those of taxa that are more common. Several studies show that rare taxa have lower levels of self-incompatibility, a tendency toward asexual reproductive pathways, lower overall reproductive effort and poorer dispersal abilities. There are several mechanisms that could be responsible for such differences, but they may in practice be difficult to differentiate. Nonetheless, the documentation of recurrent rare-common differences is of vital importance because it may allow us to compensate partially for the bias of the published literature toward studies of common taxa."
261	Lande1983.pdf	"Lande, R.; Arnold, S.J. 1983. The measurement of selection on correlated characters. Evolution 37:1210-1226"	17	"Natural selection acts on phenotypes, regardless of their genetic basis, and produces immediate phenotypic effects within a generation that can be measured without recourse to principles of heredity or evolution. In contrast, evolutionary response to selection, the genetic change that occurs from one generation to the next, does depend on genetic variation. Animal and plant breeders routinely distinguish phenotypic selection from evolutionary response to selection (Mayo, 1980; Falconer, 1981). Upon making this critical distinction, emphasized by Haldane (1954), precise methods can be formulated for the measurement of phenotypic natural selection."
262	Lande1980.pdf	"Lande, R. 1980. Sexual dimorphism, sexual selection, and adaptation in polygenic characters. Evolution 34:292-305"	14	"The evolution of sexual dimorphism in quantitative characters under natural and sexual selection acting differently on the sexes is analyzed using population genetics models. The effects of genes when in males may be correlated with their effects when in females, producing correlated selective responses between the sexes, so that male and female phenotypes cannot evolve independently But under weak natural selection with constant relative fitnesses, in the absence of sexual selection, the joint evolution of the mean phenotypes of the sexes increases the mean fitness in a population, and if there is genetic variation for sexual dimorphism each sex eventually achieves a locally optimum phenotype. With sexual selection, fitnesses are generally frequency-dependent and evolution of the mean phenotypes does not maximize the mean fitness. Provided individual fitnesses exist, at equilibrium natural and sexual selection balance in each sex. A moderate intensity of sexual selection acting on a character under weak natural selection toward an intermediate optimum phenotype can produce a large deviation of the mean phenotype from the optimum and a substantial decrease of the mean fitness in a population, increasing the probability of extinction. When homologous characters in males and females vary similarly and are highly correlated genetically, the rate of evolution of sexual dimorphism may be one or more orders of magnitude slower than that for the average phenotype in a population. Methods for partitioning sexual dimorphism into contributions from natural and sexual selection are discussed, and genetic experiments are suggested for testing the involvement of non-equilibrium correlated selective responses between the sexes in observed cases of sexual dimorphism."
263	Lande1981.pdf	"Lande, R. 1981. Models of speciation by sexual selection on polygenic traits. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 78:3721-3725"	5	"The joint evolution of female mating preferences and secondary sexual characters of males is modeled for polygamous species in which males provide only genetic material to the next generation and females have many potential mates to choose among. Despite stabilizing natural selection on males, various types of mating preferences may create a runaway process in which the outcome of phenotypic evolution depends critically on the genetic variation parameters and initial conditions of a population. Even in the absence of genetic instability, rapid evolution can result from an interaction of natural and sexual selection with random genetic drift along lines of equilibria. The models elucidate genetic mechanisms that can initiate or contribute to rapid speciation by sexual isolation and divergence of secondary sexual characters."
264	Lande1993.pdf	"Lande, R. 1993. Risks of Population Extinction from Demographic and Environmental Stochasticity and Random Catastrophes. The American Naturalist 142:911-927"	17	"Stochastic factors affecting the demography of a single population are analyzed to determine the relative risks of extinction from demographic stochasticity, environmental stochasticity, and random catastrophes. Relative risks are assessed by comparing asymptotic scaling relationships describing how the average time to extinction, T, increases with the carrying capacity of a population, K, under each stochastic factor alone. Stochastic factors are added to a simple model of exponential growth up to K. A critical parameter affecting the extinction dynamics is $\backslash tilde r,$ the long-run growth rate of a population below K, including stochastic factors. If r�� is positive, with demographic stochasticity T increases asymptotically as a nearly exponential function of K, and with either environmental stochasticity or random catastrophes T increases asymptotically as a power of K. If r�� is negative, under any stochastic demographic factor, T increases asymptotically with the logarithm of K. Thus, for sufficiently large populations, the risk of extinction from demographic stochasticity is less important than that from either environmental stochasticity or random catastrophes. The relative risks of extinction from environmental stochasticity and random catastrophes depend on the mean and environmental variance of population growth rate, and the magnitude and frequency of catastrophes. Contrary to previous assertions in the literature, a population of modest size subject to environmental stochasticity or random catastrophes can persist for a long time, if r�� is substantially positive."
265	Langer2004.pdf	"Langer, P.; Hogendoorn, K.; Keller, L. 2004. Tug-of-war over reproduction in a social bee. Nature 428:844-847"	1	"One of the main transitions in evolution is the shift from solitary organisms to societies with reproductive division of labour. Understanding social evolution requires us to determine how ecological, social and genetic factors jointly influence group stability and partitioning of reproduction between group members. Here we test the role of the three key factors predicted to influence social evolution by experimentally manipulating them in a social allodapine bee. We show that increased relatedness between nestmates results in more even reproduction among group members and a greater productivity per individual. By contrast, the degree of reproductive skew is not influenced by the opportunity for solitary breeding or by the potential benefits of cooperation. Relatedness also has a positive effect on group stability and overall productivity. These findings are in line with predictions of the tug-of-war models, in which the degree of reproductive division of labour is determined primarily by selfish competition between group members. The alternative view, where the degree of reproductive skew is the outcome of a social contract between potential breeders, was not supported by the data."
266	Lauenroth1992.pdf	"Lauenroth, W.K., Sala. O.E. 1992. Long-term forage production of North-American shortgrass steppe. Ecological Applications 2:397-403"	7	"We evaluated the relationship between annual forage production and annual and seasonal precipitation and temperature at a shortgrass steppe site in north�central Colorado using a long�term data set (52 yr). We also constructed a relationship between forage production and aboveground net primary production (ANPP). Precipitation fluctuated randomly, but temperature had clear warming and cooling trends including a 17�yr warming trend from 1974 to 1990. Forage production was significantly related to both annual and seasonal precipitation but not temperature. Precipitation events between 15 and 30 mm accounted for most of the variability in production because they accounted for most of the variability in precipitation and because they wetted the soil layers that have the largest effect on production. Forage production amplified variability in annual precipitation. Production showed time lags of several years in responding to increases in precipitation. Change in vegetation structure has a characteristic respon..."
267	Lavorel2002.pdf	"Lavorel, S.; Garnier, E. 2002. Predicting changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning from plant traits: revisting the Holy Grail. Functional Ecology 16:545-556"	12	"1. The concept of plant functional type proposes that species can be grouped accord- ing to common responses to the environment and/or common effects on ecosystem processes. However, the knowledge of relationships between traits associated with the response of plants to environmental factors such as resources and disturbances (response traits), and traits that determine effects of plants on ecosystem functions (effect traits), such as biogeochemical cycling or propensity to disturbance, remains rudimentary. 2. We present a framework using concepts and results from community ecology, ecosystem ecology and evolutionary biology to provide this linkage. Ecosystem func- tioning is the end result of the operation of multiple environmental filters in a hierarchy of scales which, by selecting individuals with appropriate responses, result in assem- blages with varying trait composition. Functional linkages and trade-offs among traits, each of which relates to one or several processes, determine whether or not filtering by different factors gives a match, and whether ecosystem effects can be easily deduced from the knowledge of the filters. 3. To illustrate this framework we analyse a set of key environmental factors and ecosystem processes. While traits associated with response to nutrient gradients strongly overlapped with those determining net primary production, little direct overlap was found between response to fire and flammability. 4. We hypothesize that these patterns reflect general trends. Responses to resource availability would be determined by traits that are also involved in biogeochemical cycling, because both these responses and effects are driven by the trade-off between acquisition and conservation. On the other hand, regeneration and demographic traits associated with response to disturbance, which are known to have little connection with adult traits involved in plant ecophysiology, would be of little relevance to ecosystem processes. 5. This framework is likely to be broadly applicable, although caution must be exer- cised to use trait linkages and trade-offs appropriate to the scale, environmental con- ditions and evolutionary context. It may direct the selection of plant functional types for vegetation models at a range of scales, and help with the design of experimental studies of relationships between plant diversity and ecosystem properties."
268	Lawton1992.pdf	"Lawton, J.H. 1992. (Modest) advice for graduate students. Oikos 65:361-362"	2	No Abstract
269	Lawton1999.pdf	"Lawton, J.H. 1999. Are there general laws in ecology? Oikos 84:177-192"	16	"The dictionary definition of a law is: ""Generalized formulation based on a series of events or processes observed to recur regularly under certain conditions; a widely observable tendency"". I argue that ecology has numerous laws in this sense of the word, in the form of widespread, repeatable patterns in nature, but hardly any laws that are universally true. Typically, in other words, ecological patterns and the laws, rules and mechanisms that underpin them are contingent on the organisms involved, and their environment. This contingency is manageable at a relatively simple level of ecological organisation (for example the population dynamics of single and small numbers of species), and re-emerges also in a manageable form in large sets of species, over large spatial scales, or over long time periods, in the form of detail-free statistical patterns - recently called 'macroecology'. The contingency becomes overwhelmingly complicated at intermediate scales, characteristic of community ecology, where there are a large number of case histories, and very little other than weak, fuzzy generalisations. These arguments are illustrated by focusing on examples of typical studies in community ecology, and by way of contrast, on the macroecological relationship that emerges between local species richness and the size of the regional pool of species. The emergent pattern illustrated by local vs regional richness plots is extremely simple, despite the vast number of contingent processes and interactions involved in its generation. To discover general patterns, laws and rules in nature, ecology may need to pay less attention to the 'middle ground' of community ecology, relying less on reductionism and experimental manipulation, but increasing research efforts into macroecology."
270	Lee2002.pdf	"Lee, C.E. 2002. Evolutionary genetics of invasive species. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17:386-391"	6	"The evolutionary genetics of invasive species has been relatively unexplored, but could offer insights into mechanisms of invasions. Recent studies suggest that the invasion success of many species might depend more heavily on their ability to respond to natural selection than on broad physiological tolerance or plasticity. Thus, these studies stress the importance of genetic architecture, selection upon which could result in evolutionary adaptations and possibly speciation. For instance, epistatic interactions and the action of a few genes could facilitate invasion success. These findings emphasize the utility of genomic approaches for determining invasion mechanisms, through analysis of gene expression, gene interactions, and genomic rearrangements that are associated with invasion events."
271	Leibold2004.pdf	"Leibold, M.A. et al. 2004. The metacommunity concept: a framework for multi-scale community ecology. Ecology Letters 7:601-613"	13	"The metacommunity concept is an important way to think about linkages between different spatial scales in ecology. Here we review current understanding about this concept. We first investigate issues related to its definition as a set of local communities that are linked by dispersal of multiple potentially interacting species. We then identify four paradigms for metacommunities: the patch-dynamic view, the species-sorting view, the mass effects view and the neutral view, that each emphasizes different processes of potential importance in metacommunities. These have somewhat distinct intellectual histories and we discuss elements related to their potential future synthesis. We then use this framework to discuss why the concept is useful in modifying existing ecological thinking and illustrate this with a number of both theoretical and empirical examples. As ecologists strive to understand increasingly complex mechanisms and strive to work across multiple scales of spatio-temporal organization, concepts like the metacommunity can provide important insights that frequently contrast with those that would be obtained with more conventional approaches based on local communities alone."
272	Leigh2002.pdf	"Leigh, E.G.; Vermeij, G.J. 2002. Does natural selection organize ecosystems for the maintenance of high productivity and diversity? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 357:709-718"	10	"Three types of evidence suggest that natural ecosystems are organized for high productivity and diversity: (i) changes not previously experienced by a natural ecosystem, such as novel human disturbances, tend to diminish its productivity and/or diversity, just as 'random' changes in a machine designed for a function usually impair its execution of that function; (ii) humans strive to recreate properties of natural ecosystems to enhance productivity of artificial ones, as farmers try to recreate properties of natural soils in their fields; and (iii) productivity and diversity have increased during the Earth's history as a whole, and after every major biotic crisis. Natural selection results in ecosystems organized to maintain high productivity of organic matter and diversity of species, just as competition among individuals in Adam Smith's ideal economy favours high production of wealth and diversity of occupations. In nature, poorly exploited energy attracts more efficient users. This circumstance favours the opening of new ways of life and more efficient recycling of resources, and eliminates most productivity-reducing 'ecological monopolies'. Ecological dominants tend to be replaced by successors with higher metabolism, which respond to more stimuli and engage in more varied interactions. Finally, increasingly efficient predators and herbivores favour faster turnover of resources."
273	Levene1953.pdf	"Levene, H. 1953. Genetic Equilibrium When More Than One Ecological Niche is Available. The American Naturalist 87:331"	1	No Abstract
274	Levin1974.pdf	"Levin, S.A. & Paine, R.T. 1974. Disturbance, patch formation, and community structure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 71:2744-2747"	4	"A model is developed to relate community structure to level of environmental disturbance in systems in which the effects of disturbance are localized in space and time. In general these disturbances create a pattern of spatio-temporal heterogeneity by renewing a limiting resource, thereby permitting utilization by species that are not dominant competitors. The proposed model predicts the frequency distribution of these renewed areas, with regard to size and age (colonization stage). The model thus allows one to relate overall system pattern to the local biology within these areas, to compare various areas with different levels of disturbance, and to predict the effects of new disturbance."
275	Levin1980.pdf	"Levin, S.A. 1980. Mathematics, Ecology, and Ornithology. Auk 97:422-425"	4	"Commentary 423 interests. The pages of ecological journals have experienced a glut of mathematical publications, often neither good mathematics nor good biology; an unfortunate con-sequence is that these camouflage those few pieces of work that do address questions of interest to biologists and the novel perspectives that may be exposed by a math-ematical approach. Most mathematical ecologists, indeed most mathematical biologists, trace their heritage from the great Italian mathematician Vito Volterra, whose contributions to pure mathematics were as profound and insightful as his revolutionary work on ecological systems. Volterra was attracted to a consideration of possible causes of fluctuations in the Adriatic fisheries by his son-in-law, the prominent zoologist Um-berto D'Ancona. Volterra's work was a tour de force, in which he demonstrated with relatively simple mathematical models how the predator-prey interaction itself could lead to cyclical behavior. His usage of mathematics was in the best sense: as a deductive tool to explore the consequences of particular assumptions. Unfortu-nately, most successors of Volterra, lacking his imagination, have restricted them-selves to ever more arcane mathematical investigations of special versions or exten-sions of Volterra's particular models, often unknowingly retracing paths Volterra trod years before; but the true legacy of Volterra is in the innovative use of math-ematics to crystalize biological ideas and to allow insights otherwise impossible. The construction and elaboration of theories involves two stages: postulation of axioms or premises and deduction of consequences. The chasm between naturalist and mathematician exists to a large extent because they view theory in different ways: the naturalist is interested in the premises per se, and in what they say about the biological system; the mathematician is accustomed to being presented with a set of axioms, and to working entirely within the world thereby defined. The math-ematician must learn that the biologist's fundamental interest is in the truth or falsity of the axioms; the biologist must appreciate the power of the deductive phase. That the conclusions the mathematician derives are implicit in the assumptions is a trivial remark: even exceedingly simple postulates may carry implications that the finest human mind cannot grasp without the aid of mathematical formalism. The math-ematician draws on experience, analogy, and a rich literature of methods and results derived in other contexts to explore the abstract world of the model. In this pursuit he is of a kindred spirit to the natural historian, exploring his world with a sense of discovery rather than invention. Who is the mathematician who comes to biology, and why does he do so? There is, of course, the classic portrait: the problem solver, the servant who wishes to place his tools at the disposal of the biologist to solve the biologist's problems. Largely because of the central position of statistics in biology, this is the most familiar role and the easiest for the biologist to accept. But one must also recognize two other modes. First, mathematics, both pure and applied, has always depended upon ex-ternal sources to provide inspiration for new developments and directions, and bi-ology has in recent years provided a rich harvest of new ideas. In mining biology for such ideas, mathematicians are in a great historical tradition, developing math-ematics for others to apply, whether now or in the indeterminate future. The biol-ogist need not be interested in such efforts, but should recognize their pursuit as legitimate activity. However, the fruits of these labors must not be confused with biology; esoteric mathematical concepts are often too glibly applied to biology, pre-tentiously and arrogantly assigned importance beyond their true merits. There is no question that much of mathematical ecology has suffered from this oversell, in part"
276	Levin1992.pdf	"Levin, S.A. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: the Robert H. MacArthur Award lecture. Ecology 73:1943-1967"	25	"It is argued that the problem of pattern and scale is the central problem in ecology, unifying population biology and ecosystems science, and marrying basic and applied ecology. Applied challenges, such as the prediction of the ecological causes and consequences of global climate change, require the interfacing of phenomena that occur on very different scales of space, time, and ecological organization. Furthermore, there is no single natural scale at which ecological phenomena should be studied; systems generally show characteristic variability on a range of spatial, temporal, and organizational scales. The observer imposes a perceptual bias, a filter through which the system is viewed. This has fundamental evolutionary significance, since every organism is an ""observer"" of the environment, and life history adaptations such as dispersal and dormancy alter the perceptual scales of the species, and the observed variability. It likewise has fundamental significance for our own study of ecological systems, since the patterns that are unique to any range of scales will have unique causes and biological consequences. The key to prediction and understanding lies in the elucidation of mechanisms underlying observed patterns. Typically, these mechanisms operate at different scales than those on which the patterns are observed; in some cases, the patterns must be understood as emerging from the collective behaviors of large ensembles of smaller scale units. In other cases, the pattern is imposed by larger scale constraints. Examination of such phenomena requires the study of how pattern and variability change with the scale of description, and the development of laws for simplification, aggregation, and scaling. Examples are given from the marine and terrestrial literatures."
277	Levins1962.pdf	"Levins, R. 1962. Theory of Fitness in a Heterogeneous Environment. I. The Fitness Set and Adaptive Function. The American Naturalist 96:361"	1	"A method is presented for representing the fitness of populations in a heterogeneous environment in terms of their fitness in the various niches taken separately, and the distribution of the niches in space and time. The characteristics of the optimal population can be found for each environmental pattern, and conditions determined in which the optimum is specialized or generalized, mono- or polymorphic, differentiated into discrete races or gradually along clines. These results are shown in table 1. The next paper in this series will extend the model and discuss experimental approaches for testing the theory."
278	Levins1963.pdf	"Levins, R. 1963. Theory of Fitness in a Heterogeneous Environment II . Developmental Flexibility and Niche Selection. The American Naturalist 97:75-90"	16	"The previous paper in this series (Levins, 1962) described a method for determining the optimal population structure of a species in terms of the statistical pattern of the environment. Three restrictive assumptions were made: 1. The phenotype is fixed independently of the environment; 2. Individuals are distributed at random among the niches; 3. The fitness of an individual depends on his own phenotype and the environment, but not the composition of the population. These restrictions will now be relaxed, and we will show the effects on our previous results of developmental flexibility, active niche selection, and interaction among different phenotypes. The final section discusses the conclusions of both papers and several approaches for testing the theory"
279	Levins1966.pdf	"Levins, R. 1966. The strategy of model building in population biology. American Scientist 54:421-431"	11	"The validation of a model is not that it is ""true"" but that it generates good testable hypotheses"
280	Levins1969.pdf	"Levins, R. 1969. Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity for biological control. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of America 15:237-240"	4	"Economically important pests usually attack a crop or group of crops over a wide region in which there are geographic, local, and temporal variations in the environment. Effectiveness of any control program will therefore depend on the different responses of the crop, pest, and control organism to this pattern of environment. Usually the environmental heterogeneity is treated as an unavoidable complication in program evaluation, and attempts are made to work with  average  conditions."
281	Levins1971.pdf	"Levins, R.; Culver, D. 1971. Regional Coexistence of Species and Competition between Rare Species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 68:1246-1248"	3	"A model is developed for the coexistence and exclusion of species over a region of similar habitable patches. Since the balance of local extinction and colonization would leave some patches unoccupied even without competitors, species may coexist even when all the patches are the same. Regional competition coefficients are found when species affect the local extinction or migration rates of each other. Rare species can regulate each other and even exclude other species completely."
282	Lewontin2006.pdf	"Lewontin, R. 2006. The Analysis of Variance and the Analysis of Causes. International Journal of Epidemiology 35:520"	1	No Abstract
283	Ley2008.pdf	"Ley, R.E. et al. 2008. Evolution of mammals and their gut microbes. Science 320:1647-1651"	5	"Mammals are metagenomic in that they are composed of not only their own gene complements but also those of all of their associated microbes. To understand the coevolution of the mammals and their indigenous microbial communities, we conducted a network-based analysis of bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequences from the fecal microbiota of humans and 59 other mammalian species living in two zoos and in the wild. The results indicate that host diet and phylogeny both influence bacterial diversity, which increases from carnivory to omnivory to herbivory; that bacterial communities codiversified with their hosts; and that the gut microbiota of humans living a modern life-style is typical of omnivorous primates."
284	Likens1970.pdf	"Likens, G.E. et al. 1970. Effects of Forest Cutting and Herbicide Treatment on Nutrient Budgets in the Hubbard Brook Watershed-Ecosystem. Ecological Monographs 40:23-47"	25	"All vegetation on Watershed 2 of the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest was cut during November and December of 1965, and vegetation regrowth was inhibited for two years by periodic application of herbicides. Annual stream�flow was increased 33 cm or 39% the first year and 27 cm or 28% the second year above the values expected if the watershed were not deforested. Large increases in streamwater concentration were observed for all major ions, except NH4+, SO4 = and HCO3�, approximately five months after the deforestation. Nitrate concentrations were 41�fold higher than the undisturbed condition the first year and 56�fold higher the second. The nitrate concentration in stream water has exceeded, almost continuously, the health levels recommended for drinking water. Sulfate was the only major ion in stream water that decreased in concentration after deforestation. An inverse relationship between sulfate and nitrate concentrations in stream water was observed in both undisturbed and deforested situations. Average streamwater concentrations increased by 417% for Ca++, 408% for Mg++, 1558% for K+ and 177% for Na+ during the two years subsequent to deforestation. Budgetary net losses from Watershed 2 in kg/ha�yr were about 142 for NO3�N, 90 for Ca++, 36 for K+, 32 for SiO2�Si, 24 for Al+++, 18 for Mg++, 17 for Na+, 4 for Cl�, and 0 for SO4�S during 1967�68; whereas for an adjacent, undisturbed watershed (W6) net losses were 9.2 for Ca++, 1.6 for K+, 17 for SiO2�Si, 3.1 for A1+++, 2.6 for Mg++, 7.0 for Na+, 0.1 for C1�, and 3.3 for SO4�S. Input of nitrate�nitrogen in precipitation normally exceeds the output in drainage water in the undisturbed ecosystems, and ammonium�nitrogen likewise accumulates in both the undisturbed and deforested ecosystems. Total gross export of dissolved solids, exclusive of organic matter, was about 75 metric tons/km2 in 1966�67, and 97 metric tons/km2 in 1967�68, or about 6 to 8 times greater than would be expected for an undisturbed watershed. The greatly increased export of dissolved nutrients from the deforested ecosystem was due to an alteration of the nitrogen cycle within the ecosystem. The drainage streams tributary to Hubbard Brook are normally acid, and as a result of deforestation the hydrogen ion content increased by 5�fold (from pH 5.1 to 4.3). Streamwater temperatures after deforestation were higher than the undisturbed condition during both summer and winter. Also in contrast to the relatively constant temperature in the undisturbed streams, streamwater temperature after deforestation fluctuated 3�4�C during the day in summer. Electrical conductivity increased about 6�fold in the stream water after deforestation and was much more variable. Increased streamwater turbidity as a result of the deforestation was negligible, however the particulate matter output was increased about 4�fold. Whereas the particulate matter is normally 50% inorganic materials, after deforestation preliminary estimates indicate that the proportion of inorganic materials increased to 76% of the total particulates. Supersaturation of dissolved oxygen in stream water from the experimental watersheds is common in all seasons except summer when stream discharge is low. The percent saturation is dependent upon flow rate in the streams. Sulfate, hydrogen ion and nitrate are major constituents in the precipitation. It is suggested that the increase in average nitrate concentration in precipitation compared to data from 1955�56,as well as the consistent annual increase observed from 1964 to 1968, may be some measure of a general increase in air pollution.


Read More: http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.2307/1942440"
285	Lindeman1942.pdf	"Lindeman, R.L. 1942. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology 23:399-418"	20	"Recent progress in the study of aquatic food-cycle relationships invites a reappraisal of certain ecological tenets. Quantitative productivity data provide a basis for enunciating certain trophic principles, which, when applied to a series of successional stages, shed new light on the dynamics of ecological succession."
286	Link2006.pdf	"Link, W.A.; Barker, R.J. 2006. Model weights and the foundations of multimodel inference. Ecology 87:2626-2635"	10	"Statistical thinking in wildlife biology and ecology has been profoundly influenced by the introduction of AIC (Akaike's information criterion) as a tool for model selection and as a basis for model averaging. In this paper, we advocate the Bayesian paradigm as a broader framework for multimodel inference, one in which model averaging and model selection are naturally linked, and in which the performance of AIC-based tools is naturally evaluated. Prior model weights implicitly associated with the use of AIC are seen to highly favor complex models: in some cases, all but the most highly parameterized models in the model set are virtually ignored a priori. We suggest the usefulness of the weighted BIC (Bayesian information criterion) as a computationally simple alternative to AIC, based on explicit selection of prior model probabilities rather than acceptance of default priors associated with AIC. We note, however, that both procedures are only approximate to the use of exact Bayes factors. We discuss and illustrate technical difficulties associated with Bayes factors, and suggest approaches to avoiding these difficulties in the context of model selection for a logistic regression. Our example highlights the predisposition of AIC weighting to favor complex models and suggests a need for caution in using the BIC for computing approximate posterior model weights."
287	Lonsdale1999.pdf	"Lonsdale, W.M. 1999. Global Patterns of Plant Invasions and the Concept of Invasibility. Ecology 80:1522-1536"	15	"With a simple model, I show that comparisons of invasibility between regions are impossible to make unless one can control for all of the variables besides invasibility that influence exotic richness, including the rates of immigration of species and the char- acteristics of the invading species themselves. Using data from the literature for 184 sites around the world, I found that nature reserves had one-half of the exotic fraction of sites outside reserves, and island sites had nearly three times the exotic fraction of mainland sites. However, the exotic fraction and the number of exotics were also dependent on site area, and this had to be taken into account to make valid comparisons between sites. The number of native species was used as a surrogate for site area and habitat diversity. Nearly 70% of the variation in the number of exotic species was accounted for by a multiple regression containing the following predictors: the number of native species, whether the site was an island or on the mainland, and whether or not it was a nature reserve. After controlling for scale, there were significant differences among biomes, but not continents, in their level of invasion. Multiple biome regions and temperate agricultural or urban sites were among the most invaded biomes, and deserts and savannas were among the least. However, there was considerable within-group variation in the mean degree of invasion. Scale-controlled analysis also showed that the New World is significantly more invaded than the Old World, but only when site native richness (probably a surrogate for habitat diversity) is factored out. Contrary to expectation, communities richer in native species had more, not fewer, exotics. For mainland sites, the degree of invasion increased with latitude, but there was no such relationship for islands. Although islands are more invaded than mainland sites, this is apparently not because of low native species richness, as the islands in this data set were no less rich in native species than were mainland sites of similar area. The number of exotic species in nature reserves increases with the number of visitors. However, it is difficult to draw conclusions about relative invasibility, invasion potential, or the roles of dispersal and disturbance from any of these results. Most of the observed patterns here and in the literature could potentially be explained by differences between regions in species properties, ecosystem properties, or propagule pressure."
288	Loreau1998.pdf	"Loreau, M. 1998. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: a mechanistic model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95:5632-5636"	5	"Recent experiments have provided some evidence that loss of biodiversity may impair the functioning and sustainability of ecosystems. However, we still lack adequate theories and models to provide robust generalizations, predictions, and interpretations for such results. Here I present a mechanistic model of a spatially structured ecosystem in which plants compete for a limiting soil nutrient. This model shows that plant species richness does not necessarily enhance ecosystem processes, but it identifies two types of factors that could generate such an effect: (i) complementarity among species in the space they occupy below ground and (ii) positive correlation between mean resource-use intensity and diversity. In both cases, the model predicts that plant biomass, primary productivity, and nutrient retention all increase with diversity, similar to results reported in recent field experiments. These two factors, however, have different implications for the understanding of the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. The model also shows that the effect of species richness on productivity or other ecosystem processes is masked by the effects of physical environmental parameters on these processes. Therefore, comparisons among sites cannot reveal it, unless abiotic conditions are very tightly controlled. Identifying and separating out the mechanisms behind ecosystem responses to biodiversity should become the focus of future experiments."
289	Loreau2003.pdf	"Loreau, M.; Mouquet, N.; Gonzalez, A. 2003. Biodiversity as spatial insurance in heterogeneous landscapes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100:12765-70"	6	"The potential consequences of biodiversity loss for ecosystem functioning and services at local scales have received considerable attention during the last decade, but little is known about how biodiversity affects ecosystem processes and stability at larger spatial scales. We propose that biodiversity provides spatial insurance for ecosystem functioning by virtue of spatial exchanges among local systems in heterogeneous landscapes. We explore this hypothesis by using a simple theoretical metacommunity model with explicit local consumer-resource dynamics and dispersal among systems. Our model shows that variation in dispersal rate affects the temporal mean and variability of ecosystem productivity strongly and nonmonotonically through two mechanisms: spatial averaging by the intermediate-type species that tends to dominate the landscape at high dispersal rates, and functional compensations between species that are made possible by the maintenance of species diversity. The spatial insurance effects of species diversity are highest at the intermediate dispersal rates that maximize local diversity. These results have profound implications for conservation and management. Knowledge of spatial processes across ecosystems is critical to predict the effects of landscape changes on both biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and services."
290	Macarthur1955.pdf	"MacArthur, R. 1955. Fluctuations of Animal Populations and a Measure of Community Stability. Ecology 36:533"	1	No Abstract
291	MacArthur1958.pdf	"Macarthur, R.H. 1958. Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests. Ecology 39:599-619"	21	"Hemispherical photography has been used since the 1960s in forest ecology. Nevertheless, specific constraints related to film cameras have progressively prevented widespread adoption of this photographic method. Advances in digital photographic technology hold great promise to overcome the major drawbacks of hemispherical photography, particularly regarding field techniques and image processing aspects. This contribution is aimed to: (i) provide a basic foreground of digital hemispherical photography; (ii) illustrate the major strengths and weakness of the method; (iii) provide an reliable protocol for image acquisition and analysis, to get the most out of using hemispherical photography for canopy properties extraction."
292	MacArthur1961.pdf	"MacArthur, R.H.; McArthur, J. 1961. On bird species diversity. Ecology 42:594-598"	5	"Suggested that Martin 1996 is wrong; that the Phylogenetic Species Concept of Cracraft will not result much chaos. There would be maybe 20,000 species rather than the current 9,000 recognized under the BSC. But most of these were recognized anyway, as subspecies, so it wouldn't result in an expansion of the size of bird guides"
293	Macarthur1966.pdf	"MacArthur, R.H.; Pianka, E. R. 1966. On optimal use of a patchy environment. American Naturalist 100:603-609"	7	"A graphical method is discussed which allows a specification of the optimal diet of a predator in terms of the net amount of energy gained from a capture of prey as compared to the energy expended in searching for the prey. The method allows several predictions about changes in the degree of specialization of the diet as the numbers of different prey organisms change. For example, a more productive environment should lead to more restricted diet in numbers of different species eaten. In a patchy environment, however, this will not apply to predators that spend most of their time searching. Moreover, larger patches are used in a more specialized way than smaller patches."
294	MacArthur1963.pdf	"MacArthur, R.H.; Wilson, E.O. 1963. An Equilibrium Theory of Insular Zoogeography. Evolution 17:373-387"	15	"A graphical equilibrium model, balancing immigration and extinction rates of species, has been developed which appears fully consistent with the fauna-area curves and the distance effect seen in land and freshwater bird faunas of the Indo-Australian islands. The establishment of the equilibrium condition allows the development of a more precise zoogeographic theory than hitherto possible. One new and non-obvious prediction can be made from the model which is immediately verifiable from existing data, that the number of species increases with area more rapidly on far islands than on near ones. Similarly, the number of species on large islands decreases with distance faster than does the number of species on small islands. As groups of islands pass from the unsaturated to saturated conditions, the variance-to-mean ratio should change from unity to about one-half. When the faunal buildup reaches 90% of the equilibrium number, the extinction rate in species/year should equal 2.303 times the variance divided by the time (in years) required to reach the 90% level. The implications of this relation are discussed with reference to the Krakatau faunas, where the buildup rate is known. A 'radiation zone,' in which the rate of intra-archipelagic exchange of autochthonous species approaches or exceeds extraarchipelagic immigration toward the outer limits of the taxon's range, is predicted as still another consequence of the equilibrium condition. This condition seems to be fulfilled by conventional information but cannot be rigorously tested with the existing data. Where faunas are at or near equilibrium, it should be possible to devise indirect estimates of the actual immigration and extinction rates, as well as of the times required to reach equilibrium. It should also be possible to estimate the mean dispersal distance of propagules overseas from the zoogeographic data. Mathematical models have been constructed to these ends and certain applications suggested. The main purpose of the paper is to express the criteria and implications of the equilibrium condition, without extending them for the present beyond the IndoAustralian bird faunas. "
295	MacArthur1967.pdf	"Macarthur, R.; Levins, R. 1967. The Limiting Similarity , Convergence , and Divergence of Coexisting Species. The American Naturalist 101:377-385"	9	"1. There is a limit to the similarity (and hence to the number) of competing species which can coexist. The total number of species is proportional to the total range of the environment divided by the niche breadth of the species. The number is reduced by unequal abundance of resources but increased by adding to the dimensionality of the niche. Niche breadth is increased with increased environmental uncertainty and with decreased productivity. 2. There is a different evolutionary limit, L, to the similarity of two coexisting species such that a) If two species are more similar than L, a third intermediate species will converge toward the nearer of the pair. b) If two species are more different than L, a third intermediate species will diverge from either toward a phenotype intermediate between the two."
296	MacArthur1964.pdf	"MacArthur, R.; Levins, R. 1964. Competition, habitat selection, and character displacement in a patchy environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 51:1207-1210"	4	"It is well known that related species often differ in either habitat' or size, and thereby avoid competitive elimination. The way in which they differ is related to the specialized ways they have of using resources, which ways in turn control numbers of coexisting species and other aspects of the evolution of the comnmunity. The detailed reasons for these assertions are given in the following paragraphs.2 Briefly, the argument is as follows. Among species which specialize on a single uniform resource, only the most effective one will survive and that species will be found wherever the resource occurs, in abundance determined by the density of the resource. Other such pure specialist species will be found, one to a uniform resource; these will normally differ in morphology, but will not in general be affected by one another's distributions. On the other hand, species which specialize on a particular proportion of mixture of two or more particular resources will be found only where their favored proportion is found, and will be replaced by other species in other habitats where the proportion of the mixture changes to one on which the new species are more effective. Of this mixed-resource type of species there can be as many3 as there are proportions of the resources which can be counted on from season to season-i.e., very many in stable climates and fewer in unpredictable climates."
297	Mace2012.pdf	"Mace, G.M.; Norris, K.; Fitter, A.H. 2012. Biodiversity and ecosystem services: A multilayered relationship. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 27:19-25"	7	"The relationship between biodiversity and the rapidly expanding research and policy field of ecosystem services is confused and is damaging efforts to create coherent policy. Using the widely accepted Convention on Biological Diversity definition of biodiversity and work for the UK National Ecosystem Assessment we show that biodiversity has key roles at all levels of the ecosystem service hierarchy: as a regulator of underpinning ecosystem processes, as a final ecosystem service and as a good that is subject to valuation, whether economic or otherwise. Ecosystem science and practice has not yet absorbed the lessons of this complex relationship, which suggests an urgent need to develop the interdisciplinary science of ecosystem management bringing together ecologists, conservation biologists, resource economists and others. "
298	Mack2000.pdf	"Mack, R.N. 2000. Biotic invasions: causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control. Ecological Applications 86:249-250"	2	"Human societies derive many assential goods from natural ecosystems, including seafood, game animals, fodder, fuelwood, timber, and pharmaceutical products. These goods represent important and familiar parts of the economy. What has been less appreciated until recently is that natural ecosystems also perform fundamental life-support services without which human civilizations would cease to thrive. These include the purification of air and water, detoxification and decomposition of wastes, regulation, of climate, regeneraion of soil fertility, and production and maintenance of biodiversity, from which key ingredients of our agricultural, pharmaceutical, and industrial enterprises are derived. This array of services is generated by a complex interplay of natural cycles powered by solar energy and operating across a wide range of space and time scales. The process of waste disposal, for example, involves the life cycles of bacteria as well as the planet-wide cycles of major chemical elements such as carbon and nitrogen. Such processes are worth many trillions of dollars annually. Yet because most of these benefits are not traded in economic markets, they carry no price tags that could alert society to changes in their supply or deterioration of underlying ecological systems that generate them. Because threats to these systems are increasing, there is a critical need for identification and monitoring pof ecosystem services both locally and globally, and for the incorporation of their value into decision-making processes. Historically, the nature and value of Earth's life support systems have largely been ignored until their disruption or loss highlighted their importance. For example, deforestation has belatedly revealed the critical role forests serve in regulating the water cycle - in particular, in mitigating floods, droughts, the erosive forces of wind, and other natural ecosystems imperil the delivery of such services. The primary threats are land use changes that cause losses in biodiversity as well as disruption of carbon, nitrogen, and other biogeochemical cycles; human-caused invasions of exotic species; releases of toxic substance; possible rapid climate change; and depletion of stratospheric ozone."
299	MacKenzie2002.pdf	"MacKenzie, D.I. et al. 2002. Estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are less than one. Ecology 83:2248-2255"	8	"Nondetection of a species at a site does not imply that the species is absent unless the probability of detection is 1. We propose a model and likelihood-based method for estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are ?1. The model provides a flexible framework enabling covariate information to be included and allowing for missing observations. Via computer simulation, we found that the model provides good estimates of the occupancy rates, generally unbiased for moderate detection probabilities (?0.3).We estimated site occupancy rates for two anuran species at 32 wetland sites in Maryland, USA, from data collected during 2000 as part of an amphibian monitoring program, Frog- watch USA. Site occupancy rates were estimated as 0.49 for American toads (Bufo amer- icanus), a 44% increase over the proportion of sites at which they were actually observed, and as 0.85 for spring peepers (Pseudacris crucifer), slightly above the observed proportion of 0.83."
300	Margalef1963.pdf	"Margalef, R. 1963. On Certain Unifying Principles in Ecology. American Naturalist 97:357-374"	18	"Ecologists have been recluctant to place their observations and their findings in the frame of a general theory. Present day ecology is extremely poor in unifying and ordering principles. A certain effort should be made in constructing a general frame of reference, even though some of the speculation may be dangerous or misleading. This paper presents various points of view, some perhaps original, others not so. certain of these viewpoints have been discussed previosly but separately, in other papers published or in press. In such an enterprise, discussion with students and colleagues has been essential, and author has profited from the experience and criticism of many people. A special sense of profited from the experience and criticism of many people. A special sense of indebtedness is felt towards Monte Lloyd, H. T. Odum, R. MacArthur, E. P. Odum, G. E. Hutchinson, and V. Tonolli"
301	Marquet2014.pdf	"Marquet, P.A. et al. 2014. On Theory in Ecology. BioScience 64:701-710"	10	"We argue for expanding the role of theory in ecology to accelerate scientific progress, enhance the ability to address environmental challenges, foster the development of synthesis and unification, and improve the design of experiments and large-scale environmental-monitoring programs. To achieve these goals, it is essential to foster the development of what we call efficient theories, which have several key attributes. Efficient theories are grounded in first principles, are usually expressed in the language of mathematics, make few assumptions and generate a large number of predictions per free parameter, are approximate, and entail predictions that provide well-understood standards for comparison with empirical data. We contend that the development and successive refinement of efficient theories provide a solid foundation for advancing environmental science in the era of big data."
302	Martens1995.pdf	"Martens, W.J. et al. 1995. Potential impact of global climate change on malaria risk. Environ Health Perspect 103:458-464"	7	"The biological activity and geographic distribution of the malarial parasite and its vector are sensitive to climatic influences, especially temperature and precipitation. We have incorporated General Circulation Model-based scenarios of anthropogenic global climate change in an integrated linked-system model for predicting changes in malaria epidemic potential in the next century. The concept of the disability-adjusted life years is included to arrive at a single measure of the effect of anthropogenic climate change on the health impact of malaria. Assessment of the potential impact of global climate change on the incidence of malaria suggests a widespread increase of risk due to expansion of the areas suitable for malaria transmission. This predicted increase is most pronounced at the borders of endemic malaria areas and at higher altitudes within malarial areas. The incidence of infection is sensitive to climate changes in areas of Southeast Asia, South America, and parts of Africa where the disease is less endemic; in these regions the numbers of years of healthy life lost may increase significantly. However, the simulated changes in malaria risk must be interpreted on the basis of local environmental conditions, the effects of socioeconomic developments, and malaria control programs or capabilities."
303	Martin1966.pdf	"Martin, P.S. 1966. Africa and Pleistocene Overkill. Nature 212:339-342"	4	"Martin's theory of Pleistocene overkill in Africa is challenged on the basis of its faunal evidence and interpretation. If human hunting was the main influence on the Pleistocene extinction pattern, it is wondered why there was not even more loss of herbivore genera."
304	May1972a.pdf	"May, R.M. & MacArthur, R.H. 1972a. Niche overlap as a function of environmental variability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 69:1109-1113"	5	"The relationship between environmental variability and niche overlap is studied for a class of model biological communities in which several species compete on a one-dimensional continuum of resources, e.g., food size. In a strictly unvarying (deterministic) environment, there is in general no limit to the degree of overlap, short of complete congruence. However, in a fluctuating (stochastic) environment, the average food sizes for species adjacent on the resource spectrum must differ by an amount roughly equal to the standard deviation in the food size taken by either individual species. This mathematical result emerges in a nonobvious yet robust way for environmental fluctuations whose variance relative to their mean ranges from around 0.01% to around 30%. In short, there is an effective limit to niche overlap in the real world, and this limit is insensitive to the degree of environmental fluctuation, unless it be very severe. Recent field work, particularly on bird guilds, seems in harmony with the model's conclusion."
305	May1979.pdf	"May R.M. & Anderson, R.M. 1979. Population biology of infectious diseases: Part II. Nature 280:455-461"	7	"In the first part of this two-part article (Nature 280, 361-367), mathematical models of directly transmitted microparasitic infections were developed, taking explicit account of the dynamics of the host population. The discussion is now extended to both microparasites (viruses, bacteria and protozoa) and macroparasites (helminths and arthropods), transmitted either directly or indirectly via one or more intermediate hosts. Consideration is given to the relation between the ecology and evolution of the transmission processes and the overall dynamics, and to the mechanisms that can produce cyclic patterns, or multiple stable states, in the levels of infection in the host population."
306	May1972.pdf	May R.M. 1972. Will a large complex system be stable? Nature 238:413-414	2	"Gardner and Ashby have suggested that large complex systems which are assembled (connected) at random may be expected to be stable up to a certain critical level of connectance, and then, as this increases, to suddenly become unstable. Their conclusions were based on the trend of computer studies of systems with 4, 7 and 10 variables."
307	May1973a.pdf	May R.M. 1973a. Qualitative stability in model ecosystems. Ecology 54:638-641	4	"We discuss deductions that can be made as to the stability of multispecies communities, knowing only the structure of the food web, i.e., knowing only the signs of the elements in the interation matrix. Systems which are stable in these circumstances are called qualitatively stable and have been treated in economic and other contexts. The discussion touches upon general aspects of the relation between complexity and stability in multispecies systems, and in particular suggests that on stability grounds predator-prey bonds should be more common than mutualistic ones. This result is not intuitively obvious, but is a feature of many real-world ecosystems."
308	May1973.pdf	May R.M. 1973. Stability in Randomly Fluctuating Versus Deterministic Environments. The American Naturalist 107:621	1	"The relation between the dynamics of population models in which all the environmental parameters are strictly deterministic and the corresponding more realistic models with random environmental fluctuations are considered. The connection between the deterministic, mechanical usage of the term ""stability"" and that usage which associates stability or instability with the degree of random population fluctuation in a stochastic environment is discussed. The eigenvalues of the (deterministic or average) ""interaction matrix"" or ""community matrix"" play a key role in both circumstances. In the deterministic environment, only the signs of the real parts of these eigenvalues are needed to know whether the population interactions are stabilizing. In the stochastic environment, where the system may be in tension between the stabilizing population interactions and the destabilizing environmental fluctuations, the magnitudes of the real parts of these eigenvalues must be contrasted with the magnitudes of the characteristic environmental variances. These points are developed in a general way and are illustrated by specific analytic and numerical work on single-species and multispecies models. Some applications of the theory are indicated, both to circumstances where it may be used to justify deterministic calculations and to the opposite extreme circumstances where even the smallest environmental stochasticity leads to a result qualitatively different from the deterministic one."
309	May1974.pdf	"May R.M. 1974. Biological populations with nonoverlapping generations: stable points, stable cycles, and chaos. Science 186:645-647"	3	"Some of the simplest nonlinear difference equations describing the growth of biological populations with nonoverlapping generations can exhibit a remarkable spectrum of dynamical behavior, from stable equilibrium points, to stable cyclic oscillations between 2 population points, to stable cycles with 4, 8, 16, . . . points, through to a chaotic regime in which (depending on the initial population value) cycles of any period, or even totally aperiodic but boundedpopulation fluctuations, can occur. This rich dynamical structure is overlooked in conventional linearized analyses; its existence in such fully deterministic nonlinear difference equations is a fact of considerable mathematical and ecological interest."
310	May1976.pdf	May R.M. 1976. Simple mathematical models with very complicated dynamics. Nature 261:459-467	9	"First-order difference equations arise in many contexts in the biological, economic and social sciences. Such equations, even though simple and deterministic, can exhibit a surprising array of dynamical behaviour, from stable points, to a bifurcating hiearchy of stable cycles, to apparently random fluctuations. There are consequently many fascinating problems, some concerned with delicate mathematical aspects of the fine structure of the trajectories, and some concerned with the practical implications and applications. This is an interpretive review of them."
311	May1977.pdf	May R.M. 1977. Thresholds and breakpoints in ecosystms with a multiplicity of stable states. Nature 260:471-477	7	"Computer simulation of the molecular dynamics of retinal during its photoisomerisation inside a restrictive active site gives a detailed model for the sequence of events in the first step of the vision process. It is proposed that the prelumirhodopsin intermediate contains a strained all-trans retinal molecule produced directly and rapidly from the 11-cis, 12-s-trans conformation in rhodopsin by a bicycle-pedal isomerisation. The model reproduces the main experimental observations and explains how the protein makes the photoisomerisation path unique."
312	May1988.pdf	May R.M. 1988. How many species are there on Earth? Science 241:1441-1449	9	"This article surveys current answers to the factual question posed in the title and reviews the kinds of information that are needed to make these answers more precise. Various factors affecting diversity are also reviewed. These include the structure of food webs, the relative abundance of species, the number of species and of individuals in different categories of body size, along with other determinants of the commonness and rarity of organisms."
313	May1983.pdf	"May, R.M.; Anderson, R.M. 1983. Epidemiology and genetics in the coevolution of parasites and hosts. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 219:281-313"	33	"Recent studies suggest that parasites (interpreted broadly to include viruses, bacteria, protozoans and helminths) may influence the numerical magnitude or geographical distribution of their host populations; most of such studies focus on the population biology and epidemiology of the host-parasite association, taking no explicit account of the genetics. Other researchers have explored the possibility that the coevolution of hosts and parasites may be responsible for much of the genetic diversity found in natural populations, and may even be the main reason for sexual reproduction; such genetic studies rarely take accurate account of the density- and frequency-dependent effects associated with the transmission and maintenance of parasitic infections. This paper aims to combine epidemiology and genetics, reviewing the way in which earlier studies fit into a wider scheme and offering some new ideas about host-parasite coevolution. One central conclusion is that 'successful' parasites need not necessarily evolve to be harmless: both theory and some empirical evidence (particularly from the myxoma-rabbit system) indicate that many coevolutionary paths are possible, depending on the relation between virulence and transmissibility of the parasite or pathogen."
314	McCann2000.pdf	"McCann, K.S. 2000. The diversity - stability debate. Nature 405:228-233"	6	"There exists little doubt that the Earth  s biodiversity is declining. The Nature Conservancy, for example, has documented that one-third of the plant and animal species in the United States are now at risk of extinction. The problem is a monumental one, and forces us to consider in depth how we expect ecosystems, which ultimately are our life-support systems, to respond to reductions in diversity. This issue      commonly referred to as the diversity-stability debate      is the subject of this review, which synthesizes historical ideas with recent advances. Both theory and empirical evidence agree that we should expect declines in diversity to accelerate the simplification of ecological communities."
315	McCann1998.pdf	"McCann, K.; Hastings, A.; Huxel, G.R. 1998. Weak trophic interactions and the balance of nature. Nature 395:794-798"	5	"Ecological models show that complexity usually destabilizes food webs predicting that food webs should not amass the large numbers of interacting species that are in fact found in nature. Here, using nonlinear models, we study the influence of interaction strength (likelihood of consumption of one species by another) on food-web dynamics away from equilibrium. Consistent with previous suggestions, our results show that weak to intermediate strength links are important in promoting community persistence and stability. Weak links act to dampen oscillations between consumers and resources. This tends to maintain population densities further away from zero, decreasing the statistical chance that a population will become extinct (lower population densities are more prone to such chances). Data on interaction strengths in natural food webs indicate that food-web interaction strengths are indeed characterized by many weak interactions and a few strong interactions."
316	McGill2006.pdf	"McGill, B. et al. 2006. Rebuilding community ecology from functional traits. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21:178-185"	8	There is considerable debate about whether community ecology will ever produce general principles. We suggest here that this can be achieved but that community ecology has lost its way by focusing on pairwise species interactions independent of the environment. We assert that community ecology should return to an emphasis on four themes that are tied together by a two-step process: how the fundamental niche is governed by functional traits within the context of abiotic environmental gradients; and how the interaction between traits and fundamental niches maps onto the realized niche in the context of a biotic interaction milieu. We suggest this approach can create a more quantitative and predictive science that can more readily address issues of global change.    
317	McGill2015.pdf	"McGill, B.J. et al. 2015. Fifteen forms of biodiversity trend in the Anthropocene. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 30:104-113"	10	No Abstract
318	McIntosh1995.pdf	"McIntosh, R.P. 1995. H. A. Gleason's 'individualistic concept' and theory of animal communities: a continuing controversy. Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 70:317-357"	41	"A tradition of natural history and of the lore of early twentieth-century ecology was that organisms lived together and interacted to form natural entities or communities. Before there was a recognizable science of ecology, Mobius (1877) had provided a name 'biocoenosis' for such entities. This concept persisted in the early decades of ecological science; at an extreme it was maintained that the community had integrating capabilities and organization like those of an individual organism, hence the term organismic community. In the 1950s-1970s an alternative individualist concept, derived from the ideas of H. A. Gleason (1939), gained credence which held that communities were largely a coincidence of individualistic species characteristics, continuously varying environments and different probabilities of a species arriving on a given site. During the same period, however, a body of population based theory of animal communities became dominant which perpetuated the idea of patterns in nature based on biotic interactions among species resulting in integrated communities. This theory introduced an extended terminology and mathematical models to explain the organization of species into groups of compatible species governed by rules. In the late 1970s the premises and methods of the theory came under attack and a vigorous debate ensued. The alternatives proposed were, at an extreme, null models of random aggregations of species or stochastic, individualistic aggregations of species, sensu Gleason. Extended research and debate ensued during the 1980s resulting in an explosion of studies of animal communities and a plethora of symposia and volumes of collected works concerning the nature of animal communities. The inherent complexity of communities and the traditional differences among animal ecologists about how they should be defined and delimited, at what scale of taxa, space and time to study them, and appropriate methods of study and analysis have resulted in extended and as yet inconclusive discussions. Recent differences and discussions are considered under five general categories, evolution and community theory, individualistic concept, community definition, questions from community ecology and empirical studies. Communities are seen by some ecologists as entities of coevolving species and, in any case, it is necessary to integrate evolutionary ideas with the varied concepts of community."
319	McMichael2013.pdf	"McMichael, A.J. 2013. Globalization, Climate Change, and Human Health. New England Journal of Medecine 368:1335-1343"	9	"T he global scale, interconnectedness, and economic intensity of contemporary human activity are historically unprecedented, 1 as are many of the consequent environmental and social changes. These global changes fundamentally influence patterns of human health, international health care, and public health activities. 2 They constitute a syndrome, not a set of separate changes, that reflects the interrelated pressures, stresses, and tensions arising from an over-ly large world population, the pervasive and increasingly systemic environmental impact of many economic activities, urbanization, the spread of consumerism, and the widening gap between rich and poor both within and between countries. In recent decades, international connectivity has increased on many fronts, in-cluding the flow of information, movements of people, trading patterns, the flow of capital, regulatory systems, and cultural diffusion. These exponential increases in demographic, economic, commercial, and environmental indexes have been labeled the Great Acceleration. 3 Remarkably, the resultant environmental effects are now altering major components of the Earth system. 4,5 The current geologic epoch is being called the Anthropocene (successor to the Holocene epoch) 5,6 in recognition of the global force that Homo sapiens has become, pushing or distorting Earth's great natural global systems beyond boundaries considered to be safe for continued human social and biologic well-being. 4,7 The loss of biodiversity, the greatly amplified global circulation of bioactive nitrogen compounds, and human-induced climate change have already reached levels that are apparently unsafe. 4 These changes pose fundamental threats to human well-being and health. 4,7 For example, a positive relationship has been observed between regional trends in climate (rising temperatures and declining rainfall) and childhood stunting in Kenya since 1975, indicating that as projected warming and drying continue to occur along with population growth, food yields and nutritional health will be impaired. 8 These human-induced climatic changes often act in concert with environ-mental, demographic, and social stressors that variously influence regional food yields, nutrition, and health. Furthermore, at the current level of global connected-ness and interdependence, the environmental impact of human activity has a wider geographic range, although its influence may be offset somewhat by more effective global alerts and more rapid distribution of food aid. The extreme heat and wild-fires in western Russia in the summer of 2010 destroyed one third of that coun-try's wheat yield, and the subsequent ban on exported grain contributed to a rise in the price of wheat worldwide, exacerbating hunger in Russia (where flour prices increased by 20%) and in low-income urban populations in countries such as Pakistan and Egypt. 9,10 On the economic front, the recent global financial crisis has underscored the domino-like interdependence of national economies."
320	McNaughton1977.pdf	"McNaughton, S.J. 1977. Diversity and stability of ecological communities-a comment on the role of empiricism in ecology. The American Naturalist 111:515-525"	11	"The diversity-stability hypothesis developed over the past 25 years appears widely misunderstood by ecologists, although it simply states that species diversity mediates community functional stability through compensating interactions to environmental fluctuations among co-occurring species. Fluctuations in the abundances of species with different adaptive modes may be a mechanism stabilizing community function in a varying environment. The available empirical evidence, including data from an experimental perturbation of successional old fields and data on the impact of environmental fluctuations on properties of grasslands in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem of Tanzania and Kenya, suggests that the hypothesis is true at the primary producer level. As components of natural science, models are true only insofar as they are verified as accurate descriptions of the systems they purportedly characterize. The data on diversity-stability relationships in plant communities indicate that the traditional verbal model is considerably more robust in application than recent ""more rigorous"" mathematical models."
321	McNaughton1989.pdf	"McNaughton, S.J. 1989. Ecosystem-level patterns of primary productivity and herbivory in terrestrial habitats. Nature 341:142-144"	3	"Ecosystems are structurally organized as food webs within which energy is transmitted between trophic levels and dissipated into the environment. Energy flow between two trophic levels is given by the amount of production at the lower level and by the proportion of production that is consumed, assimilated and respired at the higher level. Considerable evidence indicates that food-web structure varies predictably in different habitats, but much less is known about quantitative relationships among food web fluxes. Many of the energetic properties of herbivores in African game parks are associated with rainfall and, by inference, with net primary productivity. Respiratory costs per unit production at the consumer trophic level are higher for homeotherms than for heterotherms. Plant secondary chemicals affect herbivore dietary choices and the allocation of plant resources to those chemicals varies with resource availability. How these phenomena are translated into ecosystem fluxes is unknown. We present evidence that herbivore biomass, consumption and productivity are closely correlated with plant productivity, suggesting that the latter is a principal integrator and indicator of functional processes in food webs."
322	Menge2003.pdf	"Menge, B. et al. 2003. Coastal oceanography sets the pace of rocky intertidal community dynamics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 100:12229-12234"	6	"The structure of ecological communities reflects a tension among forces that alter populations. Marine ecologists previously emphasized control by locally operating forces (predation, competition, and disturbance), but newer studies suggest that inputs from large-scale oceanographically modulated subsidies (nutrients, particulates, and propagules) can strongly influence community structure and dynamics. On New Zealand rocky shores, the magnitude of such subsidies differs profoundly between contrasting oceanographic regimes. Community structure, and particularly the pace of community dynamics, differ dramatically between intermittent upwelling regimes compared with relatively persistent down-welling regimes. We suggest that subsidy rates are a key determinant of the intensity of species interactions, and thus of structure in marine systems, and perhaps also nonmarine communities."
323	Merton1968.pdf	"Merton, R.K. 1968. The Matthew Effect in science. Sciences 159:56-63"	8	"This account of the Matthew effect is another small exercise in the psychosociological analysis of the workings of science as a social institution. The initial problem is transformed by a shift in theoretical perspective. As originally identified, the Matthew effect was construed in terms of enhancement of the position of already eminent scientists who are given disproportionate credit in cases of collaboration or of independent multiple discoveries. Its significance was thus confined to its implications for the reward system of science. By shifting the angle of vision, we note other possible kinds of consequences, this time for the communication system of science. The Matthew effect may serve to heighten the visibility of contributions to science by scientists of acknowledged standing and to reduce the visibility of contributions by authors who are less well known. We examine the psychosocial conditions and mechanisms underlying this effect and find a correlation between the redundancy function of multiple discoveries and the focalizing function of eminent men of science    a function which is reinforced by the great value these men place upon finding basic problems and by their self-assurance. This self-assurance, which is partly inherent, partly the result of experiences and associations in creative scientific environments, and partly a result of later social validation of their position, encourages them to search out risky but important problems and to highlight the results of their inquiry. A macrosocial version of the Matthew principle is apparently involved in those processes of social selection that currently lead to the concentration of scientific resources and talent (50)."
324	Messina1981.pdf	"Messina, F.J. 1981. Plant Protection as a Consequence of an Ant-Membracid Mutualism : Interactions on Goldenrod. Ecology 62:1433-1440"	8	"In central New York, two chrysomelid beetles, Trirhabda virgata and T. borealis, frequently cause severe defoliation of tall goldenrod, Solildago altissima. This plant is also the primary host of Publilia concava (Membracidae), a sap-feeding treehopper that is tended by ants, especially Formica spp. Staged encounters indicate that Formica ants attack adult Trirhabda beetles on goldenrod stems bearing membracids. Such stems escape defoliation by Trirhahda, and show greater mean height increment and seed production than their nearest neighbors without ants. The degree of plant protection depends on the duration of Formica presence. During Trirhabda outbreaks, only stems bearing Formica ants for most of the season are likely to produce flowers and seeds. While Formica ants do not exclude Trirhahda larvae from goldenrod stems, they do deter feeding; plants with Formica ants experience significantly less defoliation by larvae than neighboring stems without ants. Two smaller, less aggressive ant species (Prenolepis imparis and Mvrmica sp.) do not affect either larval or adult beetle densities."
325	Michalet2006.pdf	"Michalet, R. et al. 2006. Do biotic interactions shape both sides of the humped-back model of species richness in plant communities? Ecology Letters 9:767-773"	7	"A humped-back relationship between species richness and community biomass has frequently been observed in plant communities, at both local and regional scales, although often improperly called a productivity-diversity relationship. Explanations for this relationship have emphasized the role of competitive exclusion, probably because at the time when the relationship was first examined, competition was considered to be the significant biotic filter structuring plant communities. However, over the last 15 years there has been a renewed interest in facilitation and this research has shown a clear link between the role of facilitation in structuring communities and both community biomass and the severity of the environment. Although facilitation may enlarge the realized niche of species and increase community richness in stressful environments, there has only been one previous attempt to revisit the humped-back model of species richness and to include facilitative processes. However, to date, no model has explored whether biotic interactions can potentially shape both sides of the humped-back model for species richness commonly detected in plant communities. Here, we propose a revision of Grime's original model that incorporates a new understanding of the role of facilitative interactions in plant communities. In this revised model, facilitation promotes diversity at medium to high environmental severity levels, by expanding the realized niche of stress-intolerant competitive species into harsh physical conditions. However, when environmental conditions become extremely severe the positive effects of the benefactors wane (as supported by recent research on facilitative interactions in extremely severe environments) and diversity is reduced. Conversely, with decreasing stress along the biomass gradient, facilitation decreases because stress-intolerant species become able to exist away from the canopy of the stress-tolerant species (as proposed by facilitation theory). At the same time competition increases for stress-tolerant species, reducing diversity in the most benign conditions (as proposed by models of competition theory). In this way our inclusion of facilitation into the classic model of plant species diversity and community biomass generates a more powerful and richer predictive framework for understanding the role of plant interactions in changing diversity. We then use our revised model to explain both the observed discrepancies between natural patterns of species richness and community biomass and the results of experimental studies of the impact of biodiversity on the productivity of herbaceous communities. It is clear that explicit consideration of concurrent changes in stress-tolerant and competitive species enhances our capacity to explain and interpret patterns in plant community diversity with respect to environmental severity."
326	Milchunas1988.pdf	"Milchunas, D.G.; Sala, O.E.; Lauenroth, W.K. 1988. A Generalized Model of the Effects of Grazing by Large Herbivores on Grassland Community Structure. The American Naturalist 132:87"	1	"Current disturbance models do not adequately account for the wide range of responses by grassland plant communities to grazing by large generalist herbivores. The evolutionary history of grazing, an important factor in the response of grasslands to grazing, has not been explicitly addressed. Grazing history alone, however, is not a good predictor of plant-herbivore interactions. Interactions occur along gradients of convergent to divergent selection pressures with increasing environmental moisture and of intolerance to tolerance of grazing with increasingly long evolutionary histories of grazing. We suggest that feedback mechanisms between plants and grazing animals are well developed in grasslands with long evolutionary histories of grazing. Feedback mechanisms are manifest in the rapid switching capabilities (of plant species and modes of competition) of subhumid grasslands with long evolutionary histories of grazing and divergent selection pressures. Switching capabilities do not exist in semiarid grasslands with long evolutionary histories of grazing and convergent selection pressures. Rather, for heavily grazed dominant species dominance increases. Feedback mechanisms are not well developed in systems with short evolutionary histories of grazing. In these cases, the differences in response to grazing by semiarid and subhumid situations arise primarily from differences in the grazing tolerance of plants adapted to semiaridity or of plants adapted to competition for light and from the different effects of grazing on canopy structure."
327	Milinski1997.pdf	"Milinski, M. 1997. How to avoid seven deadly sins in the study of behavior. Advances in the Study of Behavior 26:159-180"	22	"Seven common mistakes in designing and performing studies of behavior and in interpreting their results are discussed in the chapter with simple examples. Seven common mistakes are (1) unjustified conclusions are made from observational (i.e., correlational) data, (2) data are not independent ( pseudoreplication ), (3) treatments are confounded by time and sequence effects, (4) no efforts are made to avoid observer bias, ( 5 ) potential artifacts arise when animals are not accustomed to experimental procedures, ( 6 ) unsuitable controls are used, and (7) an attempt is made to  prove  the null hypothesis with small samples."
328	Mitchell1990.pdf	Mitchell W.A.; Valone T.J. 1990. The optimization research program�studying adaptations by their functions. Quarterly Review of Biology 65:43-52	10	"We develop as a scientific research program (sensu Lakatos, 1978) the essential assumptions used in applying optimization techniques study to the of adaptation. The assumptions and hypotheses of the research program are of two kinds: (1) hard core and (2) strategic. prediction Any is derived from a conjunction of both hard-core and strategic hypotheses. The hard-core hypotheses evolu- define tion as the change in the frequencies of strategies (rather than, for example, alleles or genotypes). Consequently, fitness is a property of strategies rather than genetic entities or individuals. Strategic hypotheses describe how a strategy'sfitness on various depends inputs (e.g., mating success and ener- getic intake), and on how the feasible set of inputs fitness to is constrained. Strategies are described as beingsupervenient(sensu Rosenberg 1985) ongenotypes because whileagivengenotypespecifies a strategy, a given strategy not does specify anyfinite set of genotypes. The supervenience of strategies lends credence tofunctional explanations occurrence of the of strategies. In the Optimization Research Program thefunction of a strategy is functional in that only it influences per-capita the growth rate of the strategy. A refuted prediction leads to modifying the strategic hypotheses rather than the hard-core ones. In a progressive research program, new, the modified hypotheses avoid being characterized as ad hoc by virtue of the fact that they can generate new testable predictions. Lakatos proposed science that progresses through a competition between different research programs as defined by their hard cores. We suggest alternative cores that hard might include assumption the of studies in quantitative genetics to the effect genetics that generally constrain adaptation at an evolutionarily equilibrium."
329	Mooney1970.pdf	"Mooney, H.A.; Dunn, E.L. 1970. Convergent Evolution of Mediterranean-Climate Evergreen Sclerophyll Shrubs. Evolution 24:292-303"	12	"The vegetations found in the mediterranean climate regions of the world are highly convergent in form, although they have had distinct evolutionary histories. There are numerous selective forces in this climatic type, such as fire, drought, high temperatures, rainfall unpredictability, and mineral deficiencies. These multiple selective forces are often interacting and involve the biotic as well as the physical components. A solution to any one of these selective forces in turn creates new adaptive challenges. Thus, the total possible solutions to the various combinations of forces becomes limited, leading to convergence in form and function."
330	Mora2011.pdf	"Mora, C. et al. 2011. How many species are there on earth and in the ocean? PLOS Biology 9:42217"	1	"The diversity of life is one of the most striking aspects of our planet; hence knowing how many species inhabit Earth is among the most fundamental questions in science. Yet the answer to this question remains enigmatic, as efforts to sample the world's biodiversity to date have been limited and thus have precluded direct quantification of global species richness, and because indirect estimates rely on assumptions that have proven highly controversial. Here we show that the higher taxonomic classification of species (i.e., the assignment of species to phylum, class, order, family, and genus) follows a consistent and predictable pattern from which the total number of species in a taxonomic group can be estimated. This approach was validated against well-known taxa, and when applied to all domains of life, it predicts   �_8.7 million (  �1.3 million SE) eukaryotic species globally, of which   �_2.2 million (  �0.18 million SE) are marine. In spite of 250 years of taxonomic classification and over 1.2 million species already catalogued in a central database, our results suggest that some 86% of existing species on Earth and 91% of species in the ocean still await description. Renewed interest in further exploration and taxonomy is required if this significant gap in our knowledge of life on Earth is to be closed."
331	Mousseau1987.pdf	"Mousseau, T.; Roff, D. 1987. Natural selection and the heritability of fitness components. Heredity 59:181-197"	17	"The hypothesis that traits closely associated with fitness will generally possess lower heritabilities than traits more loosely connected with fitness is tested using 1120 narrow sense heritability estimates for wild, outbred animal populations, collected from the published record. Our results indicate that life history traits generally possess lower heritabilities than morphological traits, and that the means, medians, and cumulative frequency distributions of behavioural and physiological traits are intermediate between life history and morphological traits. These findings are consistent with popular interpretations of Fisher's (1930, 1958) Fundamental Theorem of Natural Selection, and Falconer (1960, 1981), but also indicate that high heritabilities are maintained within natural populations even for traits believed to be under strong selection. It is also found that the heritability of morphological traits is significantly lower for ectotherms than it is for endotherms which may in part be a result of the strong correlation between life history and body size for many ectotherms."
332	Muller2011.pdf	"Muller, B. et al. 2011. Water deficits uncouple growth from photosynthesis, increase C content, and modify the relationships between C and growth in sink organs. Journal of Experimental Botany 62:1715-1729"	15	"In plants, carbon (C) molecules provide building blocks for biomass production, fuel for energy, and exert signalling roles to shape development and metabolism. Accordingly, plant growth is well correlated with light interception and energy conversion through photosynthesis. Because water deficits close stomata and thus reduce C entry, it has been hypothesised that droughted plants are under C starvation and their growth under C limitation. In this review, these points are questioned by combining literature review with experimental and modelling illustrations in various plant organs and species. First, converging evidence is gathered from the literature that water deficit generally increases C concentration in plant organs. The hypothesis is raised that this could be due to organ expansion (as a major C sink) being affected earlier and more intensively than photosynthesis (C source) and metabolism. How such an increase is likely to interact with C signalling is not known. Hence, the literature is reviewed for possible links between C and stress signalling that could take part in this interaction. Finally, the possible impact of water deficit-induced C accumulation on growth is questioned for various sink organs of several species by combining published as well as new experimental data or data generated using a modelling approach. To this aim, robust correlations between C availability and sink organ growth are reported in the absence of water deficit. Under water deficit, relationships weaken or are modified suggesting release of the influence of C availability on sink organ growth. These results are interpreted as the signature of a transition from source to sink growth limitation under water deficit."
333	Murdoch1985.pdf	"Murdoch, W.W.; Chesson, J.; Chesson, P.L. 1985. Biological control in theory and practice. American Naturalist 125:344-366"	23	"The conventional wisdom of biological control of insect pests, and its related ecological theory, is that successful natural enemies in ling-lived ecosystems (1) impose a low, stable pest equilibrium, and (2) share the following properties: (a) host-specific; (b) synchronous with the pest; (c) can increase in density rapidly when the pest does; (d) need only one pest individual to complete their life cycle; (e) have a high search rate for the pest; (f) aggregate at areas of high pest density, which is thought to stabilize the interaction. These features are more characteristic of parasitoids than predators. We suggest that a stable pest equilibrium is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for control. We show that satisfactory control in model system is compatible with both local extinction of the pest and polypahgy in the natural enemy. Only one of nine real examples of successful control is convincingly a stable interaction; the remainder show either strong evidence for instability and local extinciton of the pest or are consistent with this interpretation. Successful natural enemies have collectively violated all of features 1 and 2 above, and violations of features 1 and 2a, 2b, and 2d appear to have been central to success in several situations. Two strategies by which a natural enemy may control a pest in a nonequilibrium state, termed here ""lying-in-wait"" and ""search-and-destroy"", are distinguished"
334	Murtaugh2014.pdf	"Murtaugh, P.A. 2014. In defense of P values. Ecology 95:611-617"	7	"Statistical hypothesis testing has been widely criticized by ecologists in recent years. I review some of the more persistent criticisms of P values and argue that most stem from misunderstandings or incorrect interpretations, rather than from intrinsic shortcomings of the P value. I show that P values are intimately linked to confidence intervals and to differences in Akaike's information criterion (deltaAIC), two metrics that have been advocated as replacements for the P value. The choice of a threshold value of deltaAIC that breaks ties among competing models is as arbitrary as the choice of the probability of a Type I error in hypothesis testing, and several other criticisms of the P value apply equally to deltaAIC. Since P values, confidence intervals, and deltaAIC are based on the same statistical information, all have their places in modern statistical practice. The choice of which to use should be stylistic, dictated by details of the application rather than by dogmatic, a priori considerations."
335	Myers2000.pdf	"Myers, J. H. et al 2000. Eradication revisited: Dealing with exotic species. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15:316-320"	5	"Invasions of nonindigenous species threaten native biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, animal and plant health, and human economies. The best solution is to prevent the introduction of exotic organisms but, once introduced, eradication might be feasible. The potential ecological and social ramifications of eradication projects make them controversial; however, these programs provide unique opportunities for experimental ecological studies. Deciding whether to attempt eradication is not simple and alternative approaches might be preferable in some situations."
336	Naeem2012.pdf	"Naeem, S.; Duffy, J.E.; Zavaleta, E. 2012. The Functions of Biological Diversity in an Age of Extinction. Science 336:1401-1406"	6	"Ecosystems worldwide are rapidly losing taxonomic, phylogenetic, genetic, and functional diversity as a result of human appropriation of natural resources, modification of habitats and climate, and the spread of pathogenic, exotic, and domestic plants and animals. Twenty years of intense theoretical and empirical research have shown that such biotic impoverishment can markedly alter the biogeochemical and dynamic properties of ecosystems, but frontiers remain in linking this research to the complexity of wild nature, and in applying it to pressing environmental issues such as food, water, energy, and biosecurity. The question before us is whether these advances can take us beyond merely invoking the precautionary principle of conserving biodiversity to a predictive science that informs practical and specific solutions to mitigate and adapt to its loss."
337	Naeem2003.pdf	"Naeem, S.; Wright, J.P. 2003. Disentangling biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning: deriving solutions to a seemingly insurmountable problem. Ecology Letters 6:567-579"	13	"Experimental investigations of the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (BEF) directly manipulate diversity then monitor ecosystem response to the manipulation. While these studies have generally confirmed the importance of biodiversity to the functioning of ecosystems, their broader significance has been difficult to interpret. The main reasons for this difficulty concern the small scales of the experiment, a bias towards plants and grasslands, and most importantly a general lack of clarity in terms of what attributes of functional diversity (FD) were actually manipulated. We review how functional traits, functional groups, and the relationship between functional and taxonomic diversity have been used in current BEF research. Several points emerged from our review. First, it is critical to distinguish between response and effect functional traits when quantifying or manipulating FD. Second, although it is widely done, using trophic position as a functional group designator does not fit the effect-response trait division needed in BEF research. Third, determining a general relationship between taxonomic and FD is neither necessary nor desirable in BEF research. Fourth, fundamental principles in community and biogeographical ecology that have been largely ignored in BEF research could serve to dramatically improve the scope and predictive capabilities of BEF research. We suggest that distinguishing between functional response traits and functional effect traits both in combinatorial manipulations of biodiversity and in descriptive studies of BEF could markedly improve the power of such studies. We construct a possible framework for predictive, broad-scale BEF research that requires integrating functional, community, biogeographical, and ecosystem ecology with taxonomy."
338	Naiman1993.pdf	"Naiman, R. J.; Decamps, H.; Pollock, M. 1993. The Role of Riparian Corridors in Maintaining Regional Biodiversity. Ecological Applications 3:209-212"	4	"Riparian corridors possess an unusually diverse array of species and environmental processes. This @'ecological@' diversity is related to variable flood regimes, geomorphic channel processes, altitudinal climate shifts, and upland influences on the fluvial corridor. This dynamic environment results in a variety of life history strategies, and a diversity of biogeochemical cycles and rates, as organisms adapt to disturbance regimes over broad spatio-temporal scales. These facts suggest that effective riparian management could ameliorate many ecological issues related to land use and environmental quality. We contend that riparian corridors should play an essential role in water and landscape planning, in the restoration of aquatic systems, and in catalyzing institutional and societal cooperation for these efforts."
339	Nakagawa2007.pdf	"Nakagawa, S.; Cuthill, I.C. 2007. Effect size, confidence interval and statistical significance: a practical guide for biologists. Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 82:591-605"	15	"Null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) is the dominant statistical approach in biology, although it has many, frequently unappreciated, problems. Most importantly, NHST does not provide us with two crucial pieces of information: (1) the magnitude of an effect of interest, and (2) the precision of the estimate of the magnitude of that effect. All biologists should be ultimately interested in biological importance, which may be assessed using the magnitude of an effect, but not its statistical significance. Therefore, we advocate presentation of measures of the magnitude of effects (i.e. effect size statistics) and their confidence intervals (CIs) in all biological journals. Combined use of an effect size and its CIs enables one to assess the relationships within data more effectively than the use of p values, regardless of statistical significance. In addition, routine presentation of effect sizes will encourage researchers to view their results in the context of previous research and facilitate the incorporation of results into future meta-analysis, which has been increasingly used as the standard method of quantitative review in biology. In this article, we extensively discuss two dimensionless (and thus standardised) classes of effect size statistics: d statistics (standardised mean difference) and r statistics (correlation coefficient), because these can be calculated from almost all study designs and also because their calculations are essential for meta-analysis. However, our focus on these standardised effect size statistics does not mean unstandardised effect size statistics (e.g. mean difference and regression coefficient) are less important. We provide potential solutions for four main technical problems researchers may encounter when calculating effect size and CIs: (1) when covariates exist, (2) when bias in estimating effect size is possible, (3) when data have non-normal error structure and/or variances, and (4) when data are non-independent. Although interpretations of effect sizes are often difficult, we provide some pointers to help researchers. This paper serves both as a beginner's instruction manual and a stimulus for changing statistical practice for the better in the biological sciences."
340	Nathan2008.pdf	"Nathan, R. et al. 2008. A movement ecology paradigm for unifying organismal movement research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105:19052-19059"	8	"Movement of individual organisms is fundamental to life, quilting our planet in a rich tapestry of phenomena with diverse implications for ecosystems and humans. Movement research is both plentiful and insightful, and recent methodological advances facilitate obtaining a detailed view of individual movement. Yet, we lack a general unifying paradigm, derived from first principles, which can place movement studies within a common context and advance the development of a mature scientific discipline. This introductory article to the Movement Ecology Special Feature proposes a paradigm that integrates conceptual, theoretical, methodological, and empirical frameworks for studying movement of all organisms, from microbes to trees to elephants. We introduce a conceptual framework depicting the interplay among four basic mechanistic components of organismal movement: the internal state (why move?), motion (how to move?), and navigation (when and where to move?) capacities of the individual and the external factors affecting movement. We demonstrate how the proposed framework aids the study of various taxa and movement types; promotes the formulation of hypotheses about movement; and complements existing biomechanical, cognitive, random, and optimality paradigms of movement. The proposed framework integrates eclectic research on movement into a structured paradigm and aims at providing a basis for hypothesis generation and a vehicle facilitating the understanding of the causes, mechanisms, and spatiotemporal patterns of movement and their role in various ecological and evolutionary processes. ""Now we must consider in general the common reason for moving with any movement whatever."" (Aristotle, De Motu Animalium, 4th century B.C.)."
341	Nekola1999.pdf	"Nekola, J.C.; White, P.S. 1999. The distance decay of similarity in biogeography and ecology. Journal of Biogeography 26:867-878"	12	"Aim Our aim was to understand how similarity changes with distance in biological communities, to use the distance decay perspective as quantitative technique to describe biogeographic pattern, and to explore whether growth form, dispersal type, rarity, or support affected the rate of distance decay in similarity. Location North American spruce-fir forests, Appalachian montane spruce-fir forests. Methods We estimated rates of distance decay through regression of log-transformed compositional similarity against distance for pairwise comparisons of thirty-four white spruce plots and twenty-six black spruce plots distributed from eastern Canada to Alaska, six regional floras along the crest of the Appalachians, and six regional floras along the east-west extent of the boreal forest. Results Similarity decreased significantly with distance, with the most linear models relating the log of similarity to untransformed distance. The rate of similarity decay was 1.5-1.9 times higher for vascular plants than for bryophytes. The rate of distance decay was highest for berry-fruited and nut-bearing species (1.7 times higher than plumose-seeded species and 1.9 times higher than microseeded/spore species) and 2.1 times higher for herbs than woody plants. There was no distance decay for rare species, while species of intermediate frequency had 2.0 times higher distance decay rates than common species. The rate of distance decay was 2.7 times higher for floras from the fragmented Appalachians than for floras from the contiguous boreal forest. Main conclusions The distance decay of similarity can be caused by either a decrease in environmental similarity with distance (e.g. climatic gradients) or by limits to dispersal and niche width differences among taxa. Regardless of cause, the distance decay of similarity provides a simple descriptor of how biological diversity is distributed and therefore has consequences for conservation strategy."
342	Nelson2009.pdf	"Nelson, M.P.; Vucetich, J.A. 2009. On Advocacy by Environmental Scientists: What, Whether, Why, and How. Conservation Biology 23:1090-1101"	12	"Debate about the nature and appropriateness of advocacy by environmental scientists is important-it represents understanding the role of these citizens in our society. Much has been written about advocacy by scientists, and that literature describes substantial diversity in reasons why advocacy by scientists is or is not appropriate. Despite the nature of this literature there has been no comprehensive, systematic review of why some favor and others oppose advocacy by environmental scientists. Through a literature review we catalogued, categorized, and critiqued the arguments used for and against the appropriateness of advocacy by environmental scientists. Most arguments, whether for or against advocacy, are characterized by some significant deficiency. From our analysis of the literature an argument emerges that to date has never been fully articulated: that advocacy is nearly unavoidable, and that scientists, by virtue of being citizens first and scientists second, have a responsibility to advocate to the best of their abilities, to improve their advocacy abilities, and to advocate in a justified and transparent manner. We also discuss the meaning and relevance of advocacy being justified and transparent. We suggest scientists expend their efforts to better understand what constitutes appropriate advocacy and spend less effort pondering whether they should advocate."
343	Neubert1997.pdf	"Neubert, M.G.; Caswell, H. 1997. Alternatives to Resilience for Measuring the Responses of Ecological Systems to Perturbations. Ecology 78:653-665"	13	"Resilience is a component of ecological stability; it is assessed as the rate at which perturbations to a stable ecological system decay. The most frequently used estimate of resilience is based on the eigenvalues of the system at its equilibrium. In most cases, this estimate describes the rate of recovery only asymptotically, as time goes to infinity. However, in the short term, perturbations can grow significantly before they decay, and eigenvalues provide no information about this transient behavior. We present several new measures of transient response that complement resilience as a description of the response to perturbation. These indices measure the extent and duration of transient growth in models with asymptotically stable equilibria. They are the reactivity (the maximum possible growth rate immediately following the perturbation), the maximum amplification (the largest proportional deviation that can be produced by any perturbation), and the time at which this amplification occurs. We demonstrate the calculation of these indices using previously published linear compartment models (two models for phosphorus cycling through a lake ecosystem and one for the flow of elements through a tropical rain forest) and a standard nonlinear predator-prey model. Each of these models exhibits transient growth of perturbations, despite asymptotic stability. Measures of relative stability that ignore transient growth will often give a misleading picture of the response to a perturbation."
344	Nicholson1957.pdf	"Nicholson, A.J. 1957. The Self-Adjustment of populations to change. Cold Spring Harbor Symposiaon Quantitative Biology 22: 153-173"	21	
345	Noble1980.pdf	"Noble, I.R.; Slatyer, R.O. 1980. The use of vital attributes to predict successional changes in plant communities subject to recurrent disturbances. Vegetatio 43:44317"	1	"A comprehensive scheme is presented which provides qualitative models of vegetation dynamics in communities subject to recurrent disturbance. The scheme has been derived to deal mainly with terrestrial communities dominated by higher plants, but may be more widely applicable."
346	OConnor2009.pdf	"O'Connor, M. et al. 2009. Warming and resource availability shift food web structure and metabolism. PLoS Biology 7:42219"	1	"Climate change disrupts ecological systems in many ways. Many documented responses depend on species' life histories, contributing to the view that climate change effects are important but difficult to characterize generally. However, systematic variation in metabolic effects of temperature across trophic levels suggests that warming may lead to predictable shifts in food web structure and productivity. We experimentally tested the effects of warming on food web structure and productivity under two resource supply scenarios. Consistent with predictions based on universal metabolic responses to temperature, we found that warming strengthened consumer control of primary production when resources were augmented. Warming shifted food web structure and reduced total biomass despite increases in primary productivity in a marine food web. In contrast, at lower resource levels, food web production was constrained at all temperatures. These results demonstrate that small temperature changes could dramatically shift food web dynamics and provide a general, species-independent mechanism for ecological response to environmental temperature change."
347	Odum1969.pdf	"Odum, E.P. 1969. The strategy of ecosystem development. Science 164:262-270"	9	"The principle of ecological succession bear importantly on the relationships between man and nature. The framework of successional theory needs to be examined as a basis for resolving man's present environmental crisis. Most ideas pertaining to the development of ecological systems are based on descriptive data obtained by observing changes in biotic communities over long periods, or on highly theoretical assumptions; very few of the generally accepterd hypotheses have been tested experimentally. Some of the confusion, vagueness and lack of experimental work in this area stems from the tendency of ecologiusts to regard ""succession"" as a single straitforward idea; in actual fact, it entails an interacting complex of processes, some of which counteract one another."
348	Oksanen2001.pdf	"Oksanen, L. 2001. Logic of experiments in ecology: is pseudoreplication a pseudoissue? Oikos 94:27-38"	12	"Hurlbert divides experimental ecologist into �those who do not see any need for dispersion (of replicated treatments and controls), and those who do recognize its importance and take whatever measures are necessary to achieve a good dose of it�. Experimental ecologists could also be divided into those who do not see any problems with sacrificing spatial and temporal scales in order to obtain replication, and those who understand that appropriate scale must always have priority over replication. If an experiment is conducted in a spatial or temporal scale, where the predictions of contesting hypotheses are convergent or ambiguous, no amount of technical impeccability can make the work instructive. Conversely, replication can always be obtained afterwards, by conducting more experiments with basically similar design in different areas and by using meta-analysis. This approach even reduces the sampling bias obtained if resources are allocated to a small number of well-replicated experiments. For a strict advocate of the hypothetico-deductive method, replication is unnecessary even as a matter of principle, unless the predicted response is so weak that random background noise is a plausible excuse for a discrepancy between predictions and results. By definition, a prediction is an �all- statement�, referring to all systems within a well-defined category. What applies to all must apply to any. Hence, choosing two systems and assigning them randomly to a treatment and a control is normally an adequate design for a deductive experiment. The strength of such experiments depends on the firmness of the predictions and their a priori probability of corroboration. Replication is but one of many ways of reducing this probability. Whether the experiment is replicated or not, inferential statistics should always be used, to enable the reader to judge how well the apparent patterns in samples reflect real patterns in statistical populations. The concept �pseudoreplication� amounts to entirely unwarranted stigmatization of a reasonable way to test predictions referring to large-scale systems."
349	Oksanen1981.pdf	"Oksanen, L. et al. 1981. Exploitation ecosystems in gradients of primary productivity. The American Naturalist 118:240-261"	22	"Based on the assumption that each trophic level acts as a single exploitative population, a model relating the trophic structure of ecosystems to their potential primary productivity is developed. According to the model, herbivory pressure should be most severe in relatively unproductive environments. With increased potential productivity, the role of predation in herbivore regulation should become more important and the impact of herbivory upon plant communities should decrease. In very productive environments, increase in herbivory pressure is again probable, at least in aquatic ecosystems. The predicted pattern of phytomass and predicted results of manipulations are compared with available data. A reasonable fit between predictions and observations is found, although the sparsity of data and methodological uncertainties weaken the corroboration in several cases. In terrestrial ecosystems, the present version of the model seems best applicable to the vertebrate branch of the grazing chain, whereas the arthropod branch may be more sensitive to temperature than to average annual productivity."
350	Orians1962.pdf	"Orians, G.H. 1962. Natural selection and ecological theory. American Naturalist 96:257-263"	7	No Abstract
351	Orians1977.pdf	"Orians, G.H.; Solbrig, O.T. 1977. A Cost-Income Model of Leaves and Roots with Special Reference to Arid and Semiarid Areas. The American Naturalist 111:677"	1	"The inevitable close association between water loss and entrance of carbon dioxide through stomates, together with cell-morphological and physiological traits that affect these exchanges, prevent plants capable of high rates of photosynthesis per unit leaf surface area when the soil is moist from being able to extract moisture from dry soils, and vice versa. Hypothetical photosynthesis curves for leaves of mesophytic and xerophytic plants are inferred from these associations and shown to be similar to those obtained from desert shrubs. Because they are cheaper to build and maintain per unit surface area, mesophytic leaves are amortized quickly and yield profits at faster rates than xerophytic leaves, provided soil water potential is low. Which type of leaf is the most advantageous to a plant depends on the length of time during the year that soil moisture is high and on the extent of periods of high soil water potential during otherwise wet periods that necessitate either closing stomates or dropping leaves. Costs of root construction and maintenance are poorly known, but it is probably more expensive to maintain roots under conditions of high soil and plant water potential. The optimal root/shoot ratio of a plant with mesophytic leaves should be close to that providing sufficient moisture for maximum photosynthesis during the wet season, while plants with xerophytic leaves should have an R/S ratio well below the optimal for maximizing photosynthesis. The model provides a reasonable explanation for the large numbers of desert plants with deciduous, mesophytic leaves and for the great variations reported in R/S ratios in desert plants. It also can explain why dry desert flats are dominated by evergreen sclerophyllous plants, while closer to the washes there is a zone of drought-deciduous perennials, replaced again by evergreens in the washes."
352	Pace1999.pdf	"Pace, M.L. et al. 1999. Trophic cascades revealed in diverse ecosystems. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 14:483-488"	6	"New studies are documenting trophic cascades in theoretically unlikely systems such as tropical forests and the open ocean. Together with increasing evidence of cascades, there is a deepening understanding of the conditions that promote and inhibit the transmission of predatory effects. These conditions include the relative productivity of ecosystems, presence of refuges and the potential for compensation. However, trophic cascades are also altered by humans. Analyses of the extirpation of large animals reveal loss of cascades, and the potential of conservation to restore not only predator populations but also the ecosystem-level effects that ramify from their presence."
353	Paine1966.pdf	"Paine, R.T. 1966. Food Web Complexity and Species Diversity. The American Naturalist 100:65-75"	11	"It is suggested that local animal species diversity is related to the number of predators in the system and their efficiency in preventing single species from monopolizing some important, limiting, requisite. In the marine rocky intertidal this requisite usually is space. Where predators capable of preventing monopolies are missing, or are experimentally removed, the systems become less diverse. On a local scale, no relationship between latitude (10  _� to 49  _� N.) and diversity was found. On a geographic scale, an increased stability of annual production may lead to an increased capacity for systems to support higher-level carnivores. Hence tropical, or other, ecosystems are more diverse, and are characterized by disproportionately more carnivores."
354	Paine1980.pdf	"Paine, R.T. 1980. Food Webs: Linkage, Interaction Strength and Community Infrastructure. Journal of Animal Ecology 49:666-685"	20	No Abstract
355	Palmer2008.pdf	"Palmer, T.M. et al. 2008. Breakdown of an ant-plant mutualism follows the loss of large herbivores from an African savanna. Science 319:192-195"	4	"Mutualisms are key components of biodiversity and ecosystem function, yet the forces maintaining them are poorly understood. We investigated the effects of removing large mammals on an ant-Acacia mutualism in an African savanna. Ten years of large-herbivore exclusion reduced the nectar and housing provided by plants to ants, increasing antagonistic behavior by a mutualistic ant associate and shifting competitive dominance within the plant-ant community from this nectar-dependent mutualist to an antagonistic species that does not depend on plant rewards. Trees occupied by this antagonist suffered increased attack by stem-boring beetles, grew more slowly, and experienced doubled mortality relative to trees occupied by the mutualistic ant. These results show that large mammals maintain cooperation within a widespread symbiosis and suggest complex cascading effects of megafaunal extinction."
356	Parker1972.pdf	"Parker, G.A.; Baker, R.R.; Smith, V.G. 1972. The origin and evolution of gamete dimorphism and the male-female phenomenon. Journal of Theoretical Biology 36:529-553"	25	"The classical theory for the origin of anisoqamy is that the greate8t number of successful fusions occurs when the gametic material available for the population is divided with a high degas okanisogamy. This assumes that a fkd amount of reserve material is necesky for dmlopment of the zygote and that only disassortative fusions occur (i.e. between small and large &ametes). Assuming (as in previous literatunz) that a gjven gametic mass can be produced in unit time, then individual variations in gamete sizz may arise either from di&ences in the production th$e, or in the number of cell divisions at the time of production. where *te 6tness is in some way related to zygote volume  , relative rtproducti\backslash ie rates can be calculated for a range of variants with dMerent gamete prQductivitie8 (and thcnfore difkent gamete sizm). This model yields eitherdrive for small-producing (where the advantage of high productivity qxeeds that of increased provisioning for the zygote) or drive for large4producing (in the reverse case). However in certain conditions (over park of the range of x where zygote fitness is proportional to volumet) a ,marked disruptive etlbct canbegcneratedinwhichthetwoex-  �_(largeandsmaugametc production) are favoured. Reasons are given why selection should always lead to the establishment of a stable dimorphism in multicell  �_ar organisms. When the model is mod&d to include inhexi of gamete siz by simple mcndclian dominance, it is shown that as the Tit   tial range of variants is imead, the ran& of x (where fitness is prop&tional to volume9 which generates stable dimorphism also increases. As high anisogamy is approached, the disadvantageous dominant homozygote is lost leaving two sexes (sperm producers and ovum producers) in a stable 1 : 1 ratio. Stages in the evolution of dissortative fusions are outlined. Though males with sperm which fused only with ova would be favoured through- out, females with assortatively-fusing ova may have been favoured initially. Because of a faster rate of adaptation in sperm than ova, or because of the instability of an isogametic population with assortatively- fusing ova, females face an evolutionary impasse in which the only stable solution is total committment to disassortative fusions. Males are dependent on females and propagate at their expense, rather as in a parasite-host relationship."
357	Parmesan2003.pdf	"Parmesan, C.; Yohe, G. 2003. A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421:37-42"	6	"Causal attribution of recent biological trends to climate change is complicated because non-climatic influences dominate local, short-term biological changes. Any underlying signal from climate change is likely to be revealed by analyses that seek systematic trends across diverse species and geographic regions; however, debates within the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reveal several definitions of a 'systematic trend'. Here, we explore these differences, apply diverse analyses to more than 1,700 species, and show that recent biological trends match climate change predictions. Global meta-analyses documented significant range shifts averaging 6.1 km per decade towards the poles (or metres per decade upward), and significant mean advancement of spring events by 2.3 days per decade. We define a diagnostic fingerprint of temporal and spatial 'sign-switching' responses uniquely predicted by twentieth century climate trends. Among appropriate long-term/large-scale/multi-species data sets, this diagnostic fingerprint was found for 279 species. This suite of analyses generates 'very high confidence' (as laid down by the IPCC) that climate change is already affecting living systems."
358	Parton1987.pdf	Parton W.J. et al. 1987. Analysis of factors controlling soil organic matter levels in Great Plains grasslands. Soil Science Society of America Journal 51:1173-1179	7	
359	Patil1982.pdf	"Patil, G.P.; Taillie, C. 1982. Diversity as a Concept and its Measurement. Journal of the American Statistical Association 77379:548-561"	14	"This paper puts forth the view that diversity is an average property of a community and identifies that property as species rarity. An intrinsic diversity ordering of com-munities is defined and is shown to be equivalent to sto-chastic ordering. Also. the sensitivity of an index to rare species is developed, culminating in a crossing-point theorem and a response theory to perturbations. Diver-sity decompositions, analogous to the analysis of vari-ance, are discussed for two-way classifications and mix-tures. The paper concludes with a brief survey of genetic diversity, linguistic diversity, industrial concentration, and income inequality."
360	Pauly1998.pdf	Pauly D. et al. 1998. Fishing down the food webs. Science 279:860-863	4	"The mean trophic level of the species groups reported in Food and Agricultural Organization global fisheries statistics declined from 1950 to 1994. This reflects a gradual transition in landings from long-lived, high trophic level, piscivorous bottom fish toward short-lived, low trophic level invertebrates and planktivorous pelagic fish. This effect, also found to be occurring in inland fisheries, is most pronounced in the Northern Hemisphere. Fishing down food webs (that is, at lower trophic levels) leads at first to increasing catches, then to a phase transition associated with stagnating or declining catches. These results indicate that present exploitation patterns are unsustainable."
361	Pearson2003.pdf	"Pearson, R.G.; Dawson, T.P. 2003. Predicting the impacts of climate change on the distribution of species: are bioclimate envelope models useful? Global Ecology & Biogeography 12:361-371"	11	"Modelling strategies for predicting the potential impacts of climate change on the natural distribution of species have often focused on the characterization of a species' bioclimate envelope. A number of recent critiques have questioned the validity of this approach by pointing to the many factors other than climate that play an important part in determin-ing species distributions and the dynamics of distribution changes. Such factors include biotic interactions, evolu-tionary change and dispersal ability. This paper reviews and evaluates criticisms of bioclimate envelope models and dis-cusses the implications of these criticisms for the different modelling strategies employed. It is proposed that, although the complexity of the natural system presents fundamental limits to predictive modelling, the bioclimate envelope approach can provide a useful first approximation as to the potentially dramatic impact of climate change on biodiversity. However, it is stressed that the spatial scale at which these models are applied is of fundamental importance, and that model results should not be interpreted without due consider-ation of the limitations involved. A hierarchical modelling framework is proposed through which some of these limita-tions can be addressed within a broader, scale-dependent context."
362	Penuelas2015.pdf	"Penuelas, J. et al. 2015. Sensing the energetic status of plants and ecosystems. Trends in Plant Science 20: 528-530"	1	"The emerging consistency of the relationship between biochemical, optical, and odorous signals emitted by plants and ecosystems offers promising prospects for continuous local and global monitoring of the energetic status of plants and ecosystems, and therefore of their processing of energy and matter."
363	Pereira2010.pdf	"Pereira, H.M. et al. 2010. Scenarios for global biodiversity in the 21st century. Science 330:1496-1501"	6	"Quantitative scenarios are coming of age as a tool for evaluating the impact of future socioeconomic development pathways on biodiversity and ecosystem services. We analyze global terrestrial, freshwater, and marine biodiversity scenarios using a range of measures including extinctions, changes in species abundance, habitat loss, and distribution shifts, as well as comparing model projections to observations. Scenarios consistently indicate that biodiversity will continue to decline over the 21st century. However, the range of projected changes is much broader than most studies suggest, partly because there are major opportunities to intervene through better policies, but also because of large uncertainties in projections."
364	Petchey2015.pdf	"Petchey, O.L. et al. 2015. The ecological forecast horizon, and examples of its uses and determinants. Ecology Letters 18:597-611"	15	"Forecasts of ecological dynamics in changing environments are increasingly important, and are available for a plethora of variables, such as species abundance and distribution, community structure and ecosystem processes. There is, however, a general absence of knowledge about how far into the future, or other dimensions (space, temperature, phylogenetic distance), useful ecologi-cal forecasts can be made, and about how features of ecological systems relate to these distances. The ecological forecast horizon is the dimensional distance for which useful forecasts can be made. Five case studies illustrate the influence of various sources of uncertainty (e.g. parameter uncertainty, environmental variation, demographic stochasticity and evolution), level of ecological organisation (e.g. population or community), and organismal properties (e.g. body size or number of trophic links) on temporal, spatial and phylogenetic forecast horizons. Insights from these case studies demonstrate that the ecological forecast horizon is a flexible and powerful tool for researching and communicating ecological predictability. It also has potential for motivating and guiding agenda setting for ecological forecasting research and development."
365	Petrovskii2001.pdf	"Petrovskii, S.V.; Malchow, H. 2001. Wave of chaos: new mechanism of pattern formation in spatio-temporal population dynamics. Theoretical population biology 59:157-174"	84	"The dynamics of a simple prey-predator system is described by a system of two reaction- diffusion equations with biologically reasonable non-linearities (logistic growth of the prey, Holling type II functional response of the predator). We show that, when the local kinetics of the system is oscillatory, for a wide class of initial conditions the evolution of the system leads to the formation of a non-stationary irregular pattern corresponding to spatio-temporal chaos. The chaotic pattern first appears inside a sub-domain of the system. This sub-domain then steadily grows with time and, finally, the chaotic pattern invades the whole space, displacing the regular pattern."
366	Petrovskii2002.pdf	"Petrovskii, S.V.; Morozov, A.Y.; Venturino, E. 2002. Allee effect makes possible patchy invasion in a predator-prey system. Ecology Letters 5:345-352"	8	" The dynamics of interacting ecological populations results from the interplay between various deterministic and stochastic factors and this is particularly the case for the phenomenon of biological invasion. Whereas the spread of invasive species via propagation of a population front was shown to appear as a result of deterministic processes, the spread via formation, interaction and movement of separate patches has been recently attributed to the influence of environmental stochasticity. An appropriate understanding of the comparative importance of deterministic and stochastic mechanisms is still lacking, however. In this paper, we show that the patchy invasion appears to be possible also in a fully deterministic predator-prey model as a result of the Allee effect."
367	Pianka1970.pdf	"Pianka, E.R. 1970. On r- and K-selection. American Naturalist 104:592-597"	1	"Dobzhansky (1950) proposed that natural selection in the tropics operates in a fundamentally different way than it does in temperate zones. He argued that much of the mortality in the temperate zones is relatively independent of the genotype (and phenotype) of the organism concerned, and has little to do with the size of the population. Traditional examples of mass winter kills of fish and sparrows are extremes of this sort. Dobzhansky reasoned that in the relatively constant tropics, most mortality is more directed, generally favoring those individuals with better competitive abilities. Thus, in the temperate zones selection often favors high fecundity and rapid development, wheras in the tropics lower fecundity and slower development could act to increase competitive ability. By putting more energy into each offspring and producing fewer total offspring, overall individual fitness is increased. The small clutch sizes characteristic of many tropical birds are consistent with Dobzhansky's hypothesis. Dobzhansky's ideas were framed in terms too specific to reach the general ecological audience and have gone more or less unnoticed until fairly recently"
368	Pimentel1961.pdf	Pimentel D. 1961. Animal Population Regulation by the Genetic Feed-Back Mechanism. American Naturalist 95:65-79	15	"That a genetic feed-back mechanism functions to regulate populations of herbivores, parasites, and predators is supported by evidence from the biomathematics of population dynamics and studies of natural populations. The mechanism functions as a feed-back system through the dynamics of density pressure, selective pressure, and genetic changes in interacting populations. In a herbivore-plant system, animal density influences selective pressure on plants; this selection influences genetic make-up of plant; and in turn, the genetic make-up of plant influences animal density. The actions and reactions of interacting populations in the food chain cycling in the genetic feed-back mechanism result in the evolution and regulation of animal populations."
369	Pimentel1968.pdf	Pimentel D. 1968. Population regulation and genetic feedback. Science 159:1432-1437	6	"Although within a relatively short period man has learned how to put himself into space, he still is not certain how the numbers of a single plant or animal population are naturally controlled. Aspects of this problem have been investigated since Aristotle's time,
they were given important consideration in Darwin's Origin of Species, and yet the unknowns far outweigh the discoveries. If we knew more about natural regulation of population, we would be in a better position to devise more effective and safer means of control for important populations of plant and animal pests. We might also be better able to limit the growth of human populations, although that problem is exceedingly complex because of the social activities and nature of man.
"
370	Platt1964.pdf	Platt J.R. 1964. Strong Inference. Science 146:347-353	7	Certain systematic methods of scientific thinking may produce much more rapid progress than others.
371	Poff1997.pdf	"Poff, N.L. 1997. The natural flow regime. Bioscience 47:769-784"	16	The ecological integrity of river ecosystems depends on their natural dynamic character
372	Polis1991.pdf	Polis G.A. 1991. Complex trophic interactions in deserts : an empirical critique of food-web theory. The American Naturalist 138:123	1	"Food webs in the real world are much more complex than food-web literature would have us believe. This is illustrated by the web of the sand community in the Coachella Valley desert. The biota include 174 species of vascular plants, 138 species of vertebrates, more than 55 species of arachnids, and an unknown (but great) number of microorganisms, insects (2,000-3,000 estimated species), acari, and nematodes. Trophic relations are presented in a series of nested subwebs and delineations of the community. Complexity arises from the large number of interactive species, the frequency of omnivory, age structure, looping, the lack of compartmentalization, and the complexity of the arthropod and soil faunas. Web features found in the Coachella also characterize other communities and should produce equivalently complex webs. If anything, diversity and complexity in most nondesert habitats are greater than those in deserts. Patterns from the Coachella web are compared with theoretical predictions and ""empirical generalizations"" derived from catalogs of published webs. The Coachella web differs greatly: chains are longer, omnivory and loops are not rare, connectivity is greater (species interact with many more predators and prey), top predators are rare or nonexistent, and prey-to-predator ratios are greater than 1.0. The evidence argues that actual community food webs are extraordinarily more complex than those webs cataloged by theorists. I argue that most cataloged webs are oversimplified caricatures of actual communities. That cataloged webs depict so few species, absurdly low ratios of predators on prey and prey eaten by predators, so few links, so little omnivory, a veritable absence of looping, and such a high proportion of top predators argues strongly that they poorly represent real biological communities. Consequently, the practice of abstracting empirical regularities from such catalogs yields an inaccurate and artifactual view of trophic interactions within communities. Contrary to strong assertions by many theorists, patterns from food webs of real communities generally do not support predictions arising from dynamic and graphic models of food-web structure."
373	Polis1996.pdf	"Polis, G.A. & Strong, D.R. 1996. Food Web Complexity and Community Dynamics. The American Naturalist 147:813-846"	34	"Food webs in nature have multipIe, reticulate connections between a diversity of consumers and resources. Such complexity affects web dynamics: it first spreads the direct effects of consumption and productivity throughout the web rather than focusing them at particu- lar ""trophic levels."" Second< consumer densities are often donor controlled with food from across the trophic spectrum, the herbivore and detrital channels, other habitats, life-history omnivory, and even trophic mutualism. Although consumers usualIy do not affect these re- sources, increased numbers often allow consumers to depress other resources to levels lower than if donor-controlled resources were absent. We propose that such donor-contralled and ""multichannel"" omnivory IS a general feature of consumer control and central to food web dynamics. This observation is mntrary to the normal practice of inferring dynamics by simpli- fying webs into a few linear ""trophic levels,"" as per ""green world"" theories. Such theortes do not accommodate common and dynamically important features of rea1 webs such as the ubiquity of donor control and the importance and dynamics of detritus, omnivory3 resources crossing habitats, life history nutrients (as opposed to energy), pathogens, resource defenses, and trophic symbioses. We conclude that trophic cascades and top-down community regulatton as envi- sioned by traphic-IeveI theories are relatively uncommon in nature"
374	Poorter1990.pdf	"Poorter, H.; Remkes, C. 1990. Leaf area ratio and net assimilation rate of 24 wild species differing in relative growth rate. Oecologia 83:553-559"	7	"Which factors cause fast-growing plant species to achieve a higher relative growth rate than slow-growing ones? To answer this question 24 wild species were grown from seed in a growth chamber under conditions of optimal nutrient supply and a growth analysis was carried out. Mean relative growth rate, corrected for possible ontogenetic drift, ranged from 113 to 356 mg g -1 day -1 . Net assimilation rate, the increase in plant dry weight per unit leaf area and unit time, varied two-fold between species but no correlation with relative growth rate was found. The correlation between leaf area ratio, the ratio between total leaf area and total plant weight, and relative growth rate was very high. This positive correlation was mainly due to the specific leaf area, the ratio between leaf area and leaf weight, and to a lesser extent caused by the leaf weight ratio, the fraction of plant biomass allocated to the leaves. Differences in relative growth rate under conditions of optimum nutrient supply were correlated with the soil fertility in the natural habitat of these species. It is postulated that natural selection in a nutrient-rich environment has favoured species with a high specific leaf area and a high leaf weight ratio, and consequently a high leaf area ratio, whereas selection in nutrient-poor habitats has led to species with an inherently low specific leaf area and a higher fraction of root mass, and thus a low leaf area ratio."
375	Power1990.pdf	"Power, M.E. 1990. Effects of fish in river food webs. Science 250:811-814"	4	"Experimental manipulations of fish in a Northern California river during summer base flow reveal that they have large effects on predators, herbivores, and plants in river food webs. California roach and juvenile steelhead consume predatory insects and fish fry, which feed on algivorous chironomid larvae. In the presence of fish, filamentous green algae are reduced to low, prostrate webs, infested with chironomids. When the absence of large fish releases smaller predators that suppress chironomids, algal biomass is higher, and tall upright algal turfs become covered with diatoms and cyanobacteria. These manipulations provide evidence that the Hairston, Smith, Slobodkin-Fretwell theory of trophic control, which predicts that plants will be alternately limited by resources or herbivores in food webs with odd and even numbers of trophic levels, has application to river communitics."
376	Preisser2005.pdf	"Preisser, E.L.; Bolnick, D.I.; Bernard, M.F. 2005. Scared To Death ? The Effects Of Intimidation And Consumption In Predator - Prey Interactions. Ecology 86:501-509"	9	"Predation is a central feature of ecological communities. Most theoretical and empirical studies of predation focus on the consequences of predators consuming their prey. Predators reduce prey population densities through direct consumption (a density-mediated interaction, DMI), a process that may indirectly affect the prey's resources, com-petitors, and other predators. However, predators can also affect prey population density by stimulating costly defensive strategies. The costs of these defensive strategies can include reduced energy income, energetic investment in defensive structures, lower mating success, increased vulnerability to other predators, or emigration. Theoretical and empirical studies confirm the existence of these induced costs (trait-mediated interactions, TMIs); however, the relative importance of intimidation (TMI) and consumption (DMI) effects remains an open question. We conducted a meta-analysis assessing the magnitude of both TMIs and DMIs in predator-prey interactions. On average, the impact of intimidation on prey de-mographics was at least as strong as direct consumption (63% and 51% the size of the total predator effect, respectively). This contrast is even more pronounced when we consider the cascading effects of predators on their prey's resources: density effects attenuated through food chains, while TMIs remained strong, rising to 85% of the total predator effect. Predators can thus strongly influence resource density even if they consume few prey items. Finally, intimidation was more important in aquatic than terrestrial ecosystems. Our results suggest that the costs of intimidation, traditionally ignored in predator-prey ecology, may actually be the dominant facet of trophic interactions."
377	Preston1962.pdf	"Preston, F.W. 1962. The Canonical Distribution of Commonness and Rarity: Part I. Ecology 43:185"	1	No Abstract
378	Price1980.pdf	"Price, P.W. et al. 1980. Interactions Among Three Trophic Levels: Influence of Plants on Interactions Between Insect Herbivores and Natural Enemies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11:41-65"	25	"In his recentr eviewo f the developingt heory of insect-planti nteractions, Gilbert( 52) identifiedf our majort hrustsi n researchi:n sect-plantc oevolution, host plants as islands, plant apparency and chemical defense, and resourcep redictabilityv ersuse volutionarys trategieso f insects. From his review it is evident that, with a few exceptions (23, 45, 53, 64), developing theory is addressing primarily a two trophic level system. In reality, of course,a ll terrestriacl ommunitiesb asedo n living plantsa re composedo f at least three interacting trophic levels: plants, herbivores, and natural enemies of herbivores. We arguet hat theoryo n insect-planitn teractionsc annotp rogressr ealisticallyw ithoutc onsiderationo f the thirdt rophicl evel. A closerl ook at the mechanismos f interactionrse vealsa paradoxa, ndp lantsh avem anye ffects, directa nd indirect,p ositivea nd negative,n ot only on herbivoresb ut also on the enemieso f herbivoresT. he thirdt rophicl evel mustb e considereda s part of a plant's battery of defenses against herbivoresWe focus on insect herbivoresa nd their enemies, particularlyi nsect predatorsa nd parasiticw asps and flies (parasitoids)M. uch is relevantt o otherh erbivoresa nd theire nemies,a nd the literatureis richert han we can indicate in a review of this size (see 93 for another view). To clarify and abbreviated iscussiont, he term"" enemy""w ill be employedo nly for enemies of herbivoresp: redatorsp, arasitoidsa, nd parasites"
379	Price2015.pdf	"Price, T. 2015. The Debate on Determinants of Species Richness. The American Naturalist 185:571"	1	"Why are more species found in some places of the world than others? This question, so basic to ecology, has been surprisingly difficult to answer. But recent advances in our understanding of earth's history and of phylogenetic relationships among species and their geographical distri-butions, as well as better, well-developed theory, have led to a continuum of more or less well-defined perspectives. At one extreme, the world is full to carrying capacity, so, for example, temperate areas can simply hold fewer spe-cies than tropical ones. At the other extreme, many more species could fit in everywhere, but, continuing with the example, temperate areas are constantly being subject to disturbance over all timescales, which slows species accu-mulation to a greater extent than in the tropics. While no one adheres to one or other of these extremes, we thought that a debate between proponents who lie toward different ends of this scale would be informative in laying out the groundwork for where we are and where to go next. The idea was to follow the style of the University of Oxford de-bate, which is famous among biologists for the intense confrontation it hosted in 1860 between Bishop Samuel Wilberforce ("" Soapy Sam "") and Thomas Henry Huxley ("" Darwin's Bulldog "") on the Origin of Species. Our debate was held at the American Society of Natu-ralists meeting in Asilomar, California (January 2014), a conference specifically designed to bring together ecolo-gists, evolutionary biologists, and others interested in bridg-ing disciplines. The debate was entitled "" This House Be-lieves That Species Richness on Continents Is Dominated by Ecological Limits, "" with the word continent inserted be-cause dispersal limitation is less of an issue for terrestrial species on continents than it is on islands. Following the Oxford format, the proponent and opponent of the mo-tion were asked to speak for about 20 minutes, followed by a seconder from each side. Most of the 200 attendees at the meeting were present, despite the attraction of re-freshments elsewhere. Much discussion ensued after the debate, without a vote being taken. Unlike Huxley versus Wilberforce, our debate was not heated, suggesting signs of synthesis. In consequence, we asked the debaters to pre-pare articles contrasting the alternative viewpoints. The essays are well worth reading for their points of agreement and disagreement and for where the same data are interpreted differently. There are surely creative anal-yses waiting to be done that might resolve some of these differences. But both sides agree on one important issue, which is that local communities may be far from equilib-rium, regardless of whether regional species richness is strongly dependent on ecological factors such as productiv-ity (D. L. Rabosky and A. H. Hurlbert) or largely indepen-dent of such factors (L. J. Harmon and S. Harrison). At local scales, Rabosky and Hurlbert note that succession and me-tapopulation dynamics place communities out of equilib-rium. But how many more species could a relatively small re-gion in which this local patch is embedded hold? I suggest, at least in some places, not many at all. Rabosky and Hurl-bert perhaps have a more middling position, and Harmon and Harrison are on the other side. The debate continues. * As the 2014 President of the American Society of Naturalists, Trevor Price organized an Oxford-style debate as part of the ASN's stand-alone meeting in Asilomar, California. He then invited the participants to write up their positions for this special section, which he has edited for The American Naturalist."
380	Pulliam2000.pdf	"Pulliam, R.H. 2000. On the relationship between niche and distribution. Ecology letters 3:349-361"	13	"Applications of Hutchinson's n-dimensional niche concept are often focused on the role of interspecific competition in shaping species distribution patterns. In this paper, I discuss a variety of factors, in addition to competition, that influence the observed relationship between species distribution and the availability of suitable habitat. In particular, I show that Hutchinson's niche concept can be modified to incorporate the influences of niche width, habitat availability and dispersal, as well as interspecific competition per se. I introduce a simulation model called NICHE that embodies many of Hutchinson's original niche concepts and use this model to predict patterns of species distribution. The model may help to clarify how dispersal, niche size and competition interact, and under what conditions species might be common in unsuitable habitat or absent from suitable habitat. A brief review of the pertinent literature suggests that species are often absent from suitable habitat and present in unsuitable habitat, in ways predicted by theory. However, most tests of niche theory are hampered by inadequate consideration of what does and does not constitute suitable habitat. More conclusive evidence for these predictions will require rigorous determination of habitat suitability under field conditions. I suggest that to do this, ecologists must measure habitat specific demography and quantify how demographic parameters vary in response to temporal and spatial variation in measurable niche dimensions"
381	Pulliam988.pdf	"Pulliam, D.W. 1988. Sources, Sinks, and Population Regulation. The American Naturalist 132:652-661"	10	"Animal and plant populations often occupy a variety of local areas and may experience different local birth and death rates in different areas. When this occurs, reproductive surpluses from productive source habitats may maintain populations in sink habitats, where local reproductive success fails to keep pace with local mortality. For animals with active habitat selection, an equilibrium with both source and sink habitats occupied can be both ecologically and evolutionarily stable. If the surplus population of the source is large and the per capita deficit in the sink is small, only a small fraction of the total population will occur in areas where local reproduction is sufficient to compensate for local mortality. In this sense, the realized niche may be larger than the fundamental niche. Consequently, the particular species assemblage occupying any local study site may consist of a mixture of source and sink populations and may be as much or more influenced by the type and proximity of other habitats as by the resources and other conditions at the site."
382	Queller2000.pdf	"Queller, D.C. 2000. Relatedness and the fraternal major transitions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 355:1647-1655"	9	"Many of the major transitions in evolution involved the coalescence of independent lower-level units into a higher organismal level. This paper examines the role of kinship, focusing on the transitions to multicellularity in animals and to coloniality in insects. In both, kin selection based on high relatedness permitted cooperation and a reproductive division of labour. The higher relatedness of haplodiploid females to their sisters than to their offspring might not have been crucial in the origin of insect societies, and the transition to multicellularity shows that such special relationships are not required. When multicellular forms develop from a single cell, selfish conflict is minimal because each selfish mutant obtains only one generation of within-individual advantage in a chimaera. Conditionally expressed traits are particularly immune to within-individual selfishness because such mutations are rarely expressed in chimaeras. Such conditionally expressed altruism genes lead easily to the evolution of the soma, and the germ line might simply be what is left over. In most social insects, differences in relatedness ensure that there will be potential conflicts. Power asymmetries sometimes lead to such decisive settlements of conflicts that social insect colonies can be considered to be fully organismal."
383	Rabosky2015.pdf	"Rabosky, D.L.; Hurlbert, A.H. 2015. Species Richness at Continental Scales Is Dominated by Ecological Limits. The American Naturalist 185:000-000"	1	"Explaining variation in species richness among provinces and other large geographic regions remains one of the most challenging problems at the intersection of ecology and evolution. Here we argue that empirical evidence supports a model whereby ecological factors associated with resource availability regulate species richness at continental scales. Any large-scale predictive model for biological diversity must explain three robust patterns in the natural world. First, species richness for evolutionary biotas is highly correlated with resource-associated surrogate variables, including area, temperature, and productivity. Second, species richness across epochal timescales is largely stationary in time. Third, the dynamics of diversity exhibit clear and predictable responses to mass extinctions, key innovations, and other perturbations. Collectively, these patterns are readily explained by a model in which species richness is regulated by diversity-dependent feedback mechanisms. We argue that many p..."
384	Raguso2015.pdf	"Raguso, R.A. et al. 2015. The raison d'�tre of chemical ecology. Ecology 96:617-630"	14	"Chemical ecology is a mechanistic approach to understanding the causes and consequences of species interactions, distribution, abundance, and diversity. The promise of chemical ecology stems from its potential to provide causal mechanisms that further our understanding of ecological interactions and allow us to more effectively manipulate managed systems. Founded on the notion that all organisms use endogenous hormones and chemical compounds that mediate interactions, chemical ecology has flourished over the past 50 years since its origin. In this essay we highlight the breadth of chemical ecology, from its historical focus on pheromonal communication, plant-insect interactions, and coevolution to frontier themes including community and ecosystem effects of chemically mediated species interactions. Emerging approaches including the -omics, phylogenetic ecology, the form and function of microbiomes, and network analysis, as well as emerging challenges (e.g., sustainable agriculture and public health) are guiding current growth of this field. Nonetheless, the directions and approaches we advocate for the future are grounded in classic ecological theories and hypotheses that continue to motivate our broader discipline."
385	Randall1965.pdf	"Randall, J.E. 1965. Grazing effect on seagrasses by herbivorous reef fishes in the West Indies. Ecology 46:255-260"	6	"A conspicuous band of bare sand averaging about 30 ft in width often separates reefs and beds of sea grasses (Thalassia and Cymodocea) in the Virgin Islands and other islands of the West Indies. This zone of sand appears to be the result of heavy grazinlg by parrotfishes (Scarnts and Sparisomtla) and surgeonfislbes (Acanthuruts) that stay close to reefs for shelter frorm predaceous fishes. Floating sea grass fragnments are eaten by the halfbeak Hemiramiphus brosiliceisis and occa- sionally by the Bermuda chub Kyphosus sectatrix and the triggerfish Melichlthys radulla. Within the beds, the sea grasses are fed upoIn by the simiall residlent parrotfish Sparisonlia radians, the echinoids Lytechinus, Tripuieustes, and D)iadena, the green turtle Cheloniia nziydas, and in part by the queen conch Strom ibuis gigas, and manatee Trichechts tnianiatuts. It is the author's opinion that if the pre-Columbian population of the green turtle could be restored and its fishery properly regulated, the enormous production of the sea grasses in the Caribbean region could be realized more fully for the benefit of man."
386	Raup1994.pdf	"Raup, D.M. 1994. The role of extinction in evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91:6758-6763"	6	"The extinction of species is not normally considered an important element of neodarwinian theory, in contrast to the opposite phenomenon, speciation. This is surprising in view of the special importance Darwin attached to extinction, and because the number of species extinctions in the history of life is almost the same as the number of originations; present-day biodiversity is the result of a trivial surplus of originations, cumulated over millions of years. For an evolutionary biologist to ignore extinction is probably as foolhardy as for a demographer to ignore mortality. The past decade has seen a resurgence of interest in extinction, yet research on the topic is still at a reconnaissance level, and our present understanding of its role in evolution is weak. Despite uncertainties, extinction probably contains three important elements. (i) For geographically widespread species, extinction is likely only if the killing stress is one so rare as to be beyond the experience of the species, and thus outside the reach of natural selection. (ii) The largest mass extinctions produce major restructuring of the biosphere wherein some successful groups are eliminated, allowing previously minor groups to expand and diversify. (iii) Except for a few cases, there is little evidence that extinction is selective in the positive sense argued by Darwin. It has generally been impossible to predict, before the fact, which species will be victims of an extinction event."
387	Redfield1958.pdf	"Redfield, A.C. 1958. The biological control of chemical factors in the environment. American Scientist 46:205-221"	17	No Abstract
388	Redford1992.pdf	"Redford, K.H. 1992. The empty forest. BioScience 42:412-422"	11	"he world conservation com-munity has focused much of its attention on the plight of tropical forests. Many authors have lamented the loss of forest cover and the destruction of the forest and spec-ulated on the extent of the tropical forest left intact. Throughout the dis-cussion, tall, majestic, tropical trees are used as a symbol for the complete set of animal and plant species found in tropical forests. Trees are also being used by some conservation biologists, park planners, and others to represent the entire tropical forest biota and as a measure of conservation worth. The presence of soaring, buttressed tropical trees, however, does not guarantee the presence of resident fauna. Often trees remain in a forest that human activities have emptied of many of its large animals. The ab-sence of these animals has profound implications, one of which is that a forest can be destroyed by humans from within as well as from without. Until recently, human influence on tropical forests through such activi-ties as burning, swidden agriculture, and hunting was regarded by ecolo-gists as of such low impact that it was negligible, as important but confined to areas of human settlement, or as confined to rapacious colonizers de-Kent H. Redford is the director of the Program for Studies in Tropical Conser-vation and an associate professor in the Center for Latin American Studies and Department of Wildlife and Range Sci-ence, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. ? 1992 American Institute of Biological Sciences. We must not let a forest full of trees fool us into believing all is well stroying the forest from the outside. In any case, ecologists looked for study sites that would allow for ex-amination of ""natural"" processes un-contaminated by anthropogenic ef-fects. Data from botany, archaeology, and anthropology collected in many parts of the world are showing, how-ever, that anthropogenic effects are ubiquitous and that the sought-after virgin habitat may not exist. Flenley (1979), for example, has documented widespread human effects on tropical forests throughout the equatorial re-gions. The relatively recent arrival of hu-mans in the western hemisphere has not lessened the overall impact our species has had on neotropical for-ests. From the forests of Mexico through Panama, and the montane forests of Colombia to Ecuador, sci-entists have documented the ways in which pre-Columbian humans altered the presence, extent, and structure of forests. The forests of the Amazon basin were also extensively altered by human activities. In fact, Balee (1989) has recently suggested that at least 11.8% of the terra firme forests of the Brazilian Amazon, almost 400,000 km2, show continuing effects of past human interference. With few exceptions, researchers have concentrated on direct alteration of vegetation, not discussing the ways in which human activities have af-fected the animals of tropical forest ecosystems. In this article, I expand the focus to include defaunation of tropical forests, concentrating on the forests of the Amazon basin, and I show that the long-term preservation of tropical forest vegetation will not be possible if the forest fauna is not also preserved."
389	Rees2009.pdf	"Rees, M.; Ellner, S.P. 2009. Integral projection models for populations in temporally varying environments. Ecological Monographs 79:575-594"	20	"Most plant and animal populations have substantial interannual variability in survival, growth rate, and fecundity. They also exhibit substantial variability among individuals in traits such as size, age, condition, and disease status that have large impacts on individual fates and consequently on the future of the population. We present here methods for constructing and analyzing a stochastic integral projection model (IPM) incorporating both of these forms of variability, illustrated through a case study of the monocarpic thistle Carlina vulgaris. We show how model construction can exploit the close correspondence between stochastic IPMs and statistical analysis of trait-fate relationships in a  mixed  or  hierarchical  models framework. This correspondence means that IPMs can be parameterized straightforwardly from data using established statistical techniques and software (vs. the largely ad hoc methods for stochastic matrix models), properly accounting for sampling error and between-year sample size ..."
390	Reeve1993.pdf	"Reeve, H.K.; Sherman, P.W. 1993. Adaptation and the Goals of Evolutionary Research. The Quarterly Review of Biology 68:1"	1	"Adaptation is and has always been a slippery concept. Even among contemporary evolutionary biologists there is no consensus about how to identify adaptive traits. Most definitions of adaptation incorporate elements of history. Among these, some require that adaptive traits be built by natural selection for their current roles. Others take a phylogenetic perspective and require that adaptations be derived relative to traits Of antecedent taxa. Still other definitions require evidence of functional design in the biological machinery underlying the trait, implying a history of selective fine-tuning. The historical definitions are most useful for addressing questions about evolutionary history like,  What was the phylogenetic trajectory of a phenotype with current utility?,  or  How does a trait's current use relate to its original function?  Historical definitions are less useful for addressing questions about phenotype existence like,  Why do certain phenotypes predominate over others in nature?  This is because history-laden definitions often fail to classify as adaptations traits that are maintained by natural selection. Obviously it is important to employ a definition that is appropriate for the research question being pursued. Indeed, the (mis)application of history-laden definitions to questions of phenotype existence has created the illusion that nonadaptive traits abound in nature and caused widespread doubt about the importance of natural selection in molding phenotypes. To circumvent these problems we propose a nonhistorical definition of adaptation. In our view, an adaptation is a phenotypic variant that results in the highest fitness among a specified set of variants in a given environment. This definition treats adaptation as a relative concept, sets forth operational criteria for identifying the phenotypic traits to which the concept applies, and decouples adaptations from the evolutionary mechanisms that generate them. Natural selection theory predicts that among a specific set of alternatives the most adapted phenotype will be the one that predominates in a given environment. This is a testable proposition. When it is false the frequency of the trait must be due to nonselective processes such as drift, migration, selection acting on a correlated trait, or recent changes in the environment. Teleonomic demonstrations of adaptation are a special case of our suggested analysis because inferring a trait's  function  implies the application of a specific fitness criterion (e.g., optimal design) to rank alternative phenotypes. The logical structure of our definition allows us to confront five recent challenges to adaptationism, namely that: (1) it is impossible to identify adaptive traits without a knowledge of phylogeny, which can reveal constraints on adaptation, (2) genetic correlations among different traits usually prevent or retard ascent toward adaptive peaks, (3)  developmental constraints  limit the operation of natural selection, (4) the complex and highly ordered phenotypes studied by adaptationists can be explained most parsimoniously as manifestations of simple mechanisms, and without reference to natural selection, and (5) it is impossible to study the adaptive significance of human behavior because natural selection has not had time to operate on humans in our  changed  environments. We show that these challenges rest on inadequate specification of the components of adaptation."
391	Regan2002.pdf	"Regan, H.M.; Colyvan M.; Burgman M.A. 2002. A taxonomy and treatment of uncertainty for ecology and conservation biology. Ecological Applications 12:618-628"	11	"Uncertainty is pervasive in ecology where the difficulties of dealing with sources of uncertainty are exacerbated by variation in the system itself. Attempts at classifying uncertainty in ecology have, for the most part, focused exclusively on epistemic uncertainty. In this paper we classify uncertainty into two main categories: episternic uncertainty (uncertainty in determinate facts) and linguistic uncertainty (uncertainty in language). We provide a classification of sources of uncertainty under the two main categories and demonstrate how each impacts on applications in ecology and conservation biology. In particular, we demonstrate the importance of recognizing the effect of linguistic uncertainty, in addition to epistemic uncertainty, in ecological applications. The significance to ecology and conservation biology of developing a clear understanding of the various types of uncertainty, how they arise and how they might best be dealt with is highlighted. Finally, we discuss the various general strategies for dealing with each type of uncertainty and offer suggestions for treating compounding uncertainty from a range of sources"
392	Reich2014.pdf	"Reich, P.B. 2014. The world-wide ""fast-slow"" plant economics spectrum: a traits manifesto. Journal of Ecology 102:275-301"	1	"The leaf economics spectrum (LES) provides a useful framework for examining species strategies as shaped by their evolutionary history. However, that spectrum, as originally described, involved only two key resources (carbon and nutrients) and one of three economically important plant organs. Herein, I evaluate whether the economics spectrum idea can be broadly extended to water � the third key resource �stems, roots and entire plants and to individual, community and ecosystem scales. My overarching hypothesis is that strong selection along trait trade-off axes, in tandem with biophysical constraints, results in convergence for any taxon on a uniformly fast, medium or slow strategy (i.e. rates of resource acquisition and processing) for all organs and all resources.Evidence for economic trait spectra exists for stems and roots as well as leaves, and for traits related to water as well as carbon and nutrients. These apply generally within and across scales (within and across communities, climate zones, biomes and lineages).There are linkages across organs and coupling among resources, resulting in an integrated whole-plant economics spectrum. Species capable of moving water rapidly have low tissue density, short tissue life span and high rates of resource acquisition and flux at organ and individual scales. The reverse is true for species with the slow strategy. Different traits may be important in different conditions, but as being fast in one respect generally requires being fast in others, being fast or slow is a general feature of species.Economic traits influence performance and fitness consistent with trait-based theory about underlying adaptive mechanisms. Traits help explain differences in growth and survival across resource gradients and thus help explain the distribution of species and the assembly of communities across light, water and nutrient gradients. Traits scale up � fast traits are associated with faster rates of ecosystem processes such as decomposition or primary productivity, and slow traits with slow process rates.Synthesis. Traits matter. A single �fast�slow� plant economics spectrum that integrates across leaves, stems and roots is a key feature of the plant universe and helps to explain individual ecological strategies, community assembly processes and the functioning of ecosystems."
393	Reiners1986.pdf	"Reiners, W.A. 1986. Complementary models for ecosystems. The American Naturalist 127:59-73"	15	"Ecosystems were first defined in western literature by Tansley (1935) as the functional combination of the ""organism-complex"" plus environmental This level of organization was conceived in response to philosophical agonies over the ""superorganismic"" concept of community, naled inherent difficulties with the concept from its beginning. and practical aspect of the discipline of ecology. thought by Tansley to be part of a hierarchical series of biological entities of increasing scale and complexity, a notion very much embraced today (E. Odum 1971; Ricklefs 1983). Through time, ecology at the ecosystem level has become a vigorous, well-funded, Still, in many ways the ecosystem remains the least coherent of the organiza- tional levels of ecology. It lacks a logical system of interconnected principles and a well-understood and widely accepted focus. Some of this incoherence may be inherited multiple approaches that are inevitable in addressing a concept of such scope. McIntosh (1985) illustrated from the introduction from the community origins of the concept; some may result from the the confusion resulting of ""sys- tems ecology"" and ""ecosystem analysis"" to the field. Jordan (1981) betrayed a disciplinary identity crisis when he asked, ""Do ecosystems exist?"" From what- ever source, this incoherence confuses students and investigators tems that may alleviate some of these problems and stimulate ment. with the ecosystem concept that hinder the develop- principles, and then suggest ways of addressing ecosys- theoretical develop- alike. I suggest that it underlies the lack of useful, theoretical development since approximately 1960 and the present digression of ecosystem research into a largely reductionist mode. These are contestable assertions. Rather than defending them, I address special congenital difficulties with the ecosystem concept that hinder the development of interconnected prinicples,a dn then suggest ways of addressing ecosystems that may alleviate some of these problems and stimulate theoretical development."
394	Rice1996.pdf	"Rice, W.R. 1996. Sexually antagonistic male adaptation triggered by experimental arrest of female evolution. Nature 381:232-234"	3	"Each sex is part of the environment of the other sex. This may lead to perpetual coevolution between the sexes, when adaptation by one sex reduces fitness of the other. Indirect evidence comes from experiments with Drosophila melanogaster indicating that seminal fluid reduces the competitive ability of sperm from other males, thereby increasing male fitness. It also reduces a female's propensity to remate and increase her egg-laying rate. In contrast to these benefits to males, seminal fluid has substantial toxic side effects in females, with increasing quantity leading to decreasing female survival. Here I show that when female D. melanogaster are experimentally prevented from coevolving with males, males rapidly adapt to the static female phenotype. This male adaptation leads to a reduction in female survivorship, which is mediated by an increased rate of remating and increased toxicity of seminal fluid."
395	Rice1989.pdf	"Rice, W.R. 1989. Analyzing Tables of Statistical Tests. Evolution 43:223-225"	3	"testing for the statistical significance of com- ponent tests is routinely carried out in a biased fashion that liberally judges far too many tests to be significant The standard Bonferroni technique is described in many general statistics texts. It can be readily shown (e.g., see Miller, 1981) that, if a collection of k tests is simultaneously carried out at the a/k significance level, the probability, on H0,c that at least one component H0,i will be erroneously rejected is less than or equal to a. This inequality does not require that component tests be independent. A major disadvantage of the stan- dard Bonferroni method, however, occurs when more than one component H0,i is false. For example, suppose in the hypothetical correlation table described above that four of the ten correlations were actually different from zero. The standard Bonferroni test has substantially reduced power in detecting more than one false H0,i (see Holm, 1979). To increase power in detecting more than one false Ho0, Holm ( 1979) introduced the sequential Bonferroni technique. To begin the test, select a significance level (a). Next, replace each test statistic by its corresponding P value and rank the P values from smallest (P,) to largest (Pk). First consider the smallest P value (PI). If P, =/< a/k, then judge that the corresponding test in- dicates significance at the ""table-wide"" a level; if the inequality is not met, declare that all tests indicate nonsignificance at the table-wide a level. If and only if P, c? a/k, proceed to the second smallest P value (P2). If P2 '? a/(k - 1), then judge this test also to indicate statistical significance at the a table-wide level of significance and proceed to the third smallest P value (P3). If P2 > a/(k - 1), then declare the corresponding test and all other tests with larger P values to indicate nonsignificance at the table-wide a level. Continue in this fashion until the inequality P, c? a/(I + k - i) is not met."
396	Ricklefs1987.pdf	"Ricklefs, R.E. 1987. Community diversity: relative roles of local and regional processes. Science 235:167-171"	5	"The species richness (diversity) of local plant and animal assemblages-biological communities-balances regional processes of species formation and geographic dispersal, which add species to communities, against processes of predation, competitive exclusion, adaptation, and stochastic variation, which may promote local extinction. During the past three decades, ecologists have sought to explain differences in local diversity by the influence of the physical environment on local interactions among species, interactions that are generally believed to limit the number of coexisting species. But diversity of the biological community often fails to converge under similar physical conditions, and local diversity bears a demonstrable dependence upon regional diversity. These observations suggest that regional and historical processes, as well as unique events and circumstances, profoundly influence local community structure. Ecologists must broaden their concepts of community processes and incorporate data from systematics, biogeography, and paleontology into analyses of ecological patterns and tests of community theory."
397	Ricklefs2004.pdf	"Ricklefs, R.E. 2004. A comprehensive framework for global patterns in biodiversity. Ecology letters 7:42005"	1	"The present study proposes to reconcile the different spatial and temporal scales of regional species production and local constraint on species richness. Although interactions between populations rapidly achieve equilibrium and limit membership in ecological communities locally, these interactions occur over heterogeneous environ-ments within large regions, where the populations of species are stably regulated through competition and habitat selection. Consequently, exclusion of species from a region depends on long-term regional-scale environmental change or evolutionary change among interacting populations, bringing species production and extinction onto the same scale and establishing a link between local and regional processes. Large-scale patterns of taxonomic diversity have challenged biologists ever since Europeans took natural history exploration to the far corners of the globe in the 18th and 19th centuries. These patterns have stimulated more explanations and hypotheses than one can reasonably test with the data at hand (. Being unable to reject hypotheses easily, and faced with the likelihood that many processes influence patterns of diversity, biologists understandably hold divergent views on this issue. Prior to c. 1960, most ideas about diversity were founded in history and geography. Diversity was believed to rise to its fullest extent through evolutionary diversification over long periods within large areas. The unification of population biology and biogeography in the 1960s, most famously by Robert MacArthur and his associates and students (MacArthur 1965, 1972), brought diversity into the ecological back yard. New theories maintained that membership in ecological communities was limited by interactions among species - broadly, competition, predation, and mutualism. These interactions, which played out within small areas over ecological time, provided a basis for understanding diversity patterns. As the historian of science, Sharon Kingsland (1985), put it, community ecology   �eclipsed  � history, to the point that in many minds the two were incompatible. Ecologists and population biologists largely supported explanations for diversity patterns based on species interactions within communities; systematists and biogeographers were reluct-ant to abandon historical explanations, but mostly remained in the background (see Whittaker 1972; Rosenzweig 1975, 1978; Connor & Simberloff 1979). Three issues aggravated this division between historical and ecological approaches to diversity patterns. First, historical hypotheses were considered by many to be untestable and thus not valid scientific hypotheses (e.g. Francis & Currie 1998). Second, experimental and model systems demonstrated that ecological interactions ran to steady-state conditions too rapidly for slower evolutionary processes to have a local impact (Pielou 1977). Third, strong correlations between diversity and local ecological condi-tions were consistent with the idea that local interactions constrain diversity, and they therefore seemed to provide a sufficient explanation (Turner et al. 1987; Currie 1991; Wright et al. 1993; Lennon et al. 2000; Whittaker & Field 2000). The continued interest in diversity patterns and the instability of ideas about their causes - witness the flurry of interest recently over Hubbell's (2001) neutral theory of ecological communities (Zhang & Lin 1997; Yu et al. 1998; Abrams 2001; Bell 2001; Brown 2001; Chave et al. 2002; Cody 2002; Condit et al. 2002; Ricklefs 2003a; Volkov et al. 2003) - reflects the prominence of diversity as a bellwether of our understanding of ecological systems."
398	Ricklefs2008.pdf	"Ricklefs, R.E. 2008. Disintegration of the Ecological Community. The American Naturalist 172:741-750"	10	"In this essay, I argue that the seemingly indestructible concept of the community as a local, interacting assemblage of species has hindered progress toward understanding species richness at local to regional scales. I suggest that the distributions of species within a region reveal more about the processes that generate diversity patterns than does the co-occurrence of species at any given point. The local community is an epiphenomenon that has relatively little explanatory power in ecology and evolutionary biology. Local coexistence cannot provide insight into the ecogeographic distributions of species within a region, from which local assemblages of species derive, nor can local communities be used to test hypotheses concerning the origin, maintenance, and regulation of species richness, either locally or regionally. Ecologists are moving toward a community concept based on interactions between populations over a continuum of spatial and temporal scales within entire regions, including the population and evolutionary processes that produce new species."
399	Root2003.pdf	"Root, T.L. et al. 2003. Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421:57-60"	4	"Over the past 100 years, the global average temperature has increased by approximately 0.6 degreesC and is projected to continue to rise at a rapid rate(1). Although species have responded to climatic changes throughout their evolutionary history(2), a primary concern for wild species and their ecosystems is this rapid rate of change(3). We gathered information on species and global warming from 143 studies for our meta-analyses. These analyses reveal a consistent temperature-related shift, or 'fingerprint', in species ranging from molluscs to mammals and from grasses to trees. Indeed, more than 80% of the species that show changes are shifting in the direction expected on the basis of known physiological constraints of species. Consequently, the balance of evidence from these studies strongly suggests that a significant impact of global warming is already discernible in animal and plant populations. The synergism of rapid temperature rise and other stresses, in particular habitat destruction, could easily disrupt the connectedness among species and lead to a reformulation of species communities, reflecting differential changes in species, and to numerous extirpations and possibly extinctions."
400	Rosenzweig1971.pdf	"Rosenzweig, M. 1971. Paradox of enrichment: destabilization of exploitation ecosystems in ecological time. Science 171:385-387"	3	"Six reasonable models of trophic exploitation in a two-species ecosystem whose exploiters compete only by depleting each other's resource supply are presented. In each case, increasing the supply of limiting nutrients or energy tends to destroy the steady state. Thus man must be very careful in attempting to enrich an ecosystem in order to increase its food yield. There is a real chance that such activity may result in decimation of the food species that are wanted in greater abundance."
401	Rosenzweig1963.pdf	"Rosenzweig, M.L., MacArthur, R.H. 1963. Graphical Represenation and Stability Conditions of Predator-Prey Interactions. The American Naturalist 97:209-223"	15	"The general nature of the predator-prey interaction has been depicted as a graph of predator versus prey densities from which conditions for stability of the interaction are predicted. An example of a three-species interaction is also presented. Variations of the graph are introduced, and it is shown that an otherwise unstable interaction may be stabilized by the presence of either an inviolable prey hiding place, or extremely low predation pressure at moderate predator and high prey densities, or another predator-limiting resource. Stability is always conferred when the predator is severely limited at its equilibrium density by one of its resources other than its supply of prey. Predators should tend to be limited at their equilibrium densities by more than one of their resources. When either of the two foregoing situations pertains, regular predator-prey oscillations should not be observable. The stability of the interaction close to equilibrium was found to depend exclusively, in the mathematically-continuous model, upon the slopes of two lines in the graph at equilibrium. Stability can be asymptotic rather than oscillatory in type. An equation for the period of oscillatory interactions is also advanced. The effects of Natural Selection on the isoclines, and thus the stability, is not clear-cut. Selection of the prey tends to stabilize the interaction; the opposite is true for selection on the predator."
402	Rossi1992.pdf	"Rossi, R. et al. 1992. Geostatistical tools for modeling and interpreting ecological spatial dependence. Ecological Monographs 62:277-314"	38	"Geostatistics brings to ecology novel tools for the interpretation of spatial patterns of organisms, of the numerous environmental components with which they interact, and of the joint spatial dependence between organisms and their environment. The purpose of this paper is to use data from the ecological literature as well as from original research to provide a comprehensive and easily understood analysis of geostatistics' manner of modeling and methods. The traditional geostatistical tool, the variogram, a tool that is beginning to be used in ecology, is shown to provide an incomplete and misleading summary of spatial pattern when local means and variances change. Use of the non    ergodic covariance and correlogram provides a more effective description of lag    to    lag spatial dependence because the changing local means and variances are accounted for. Indicator transformations capture the spatial patterns of nominal ecological variables like gene frequencies and the presence/absence of an organism and of subgroups of a population like large or small individuals.Robust variogram measures are shown to be useful in data sets that contain many data outliers. Appropriate removal of outliers reveals latent spatial dependence and patterns. Cross-variograms, cross-covariances,and cross-correlograms define the joint spa- tial dependence between co-occurring organisms.The results of all of these analyses bring new insights into the spatial relations of organisms in their environment"
403	Sala2000.pdf	"Sala, O. et al. 2000. Global Biodiversity Scenarios for the Year 2100. Science 5459:1770-1774"	5	"Scenarios of changes in biodiversity for the year 2100 can now be developed based on scenarios of changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, climate, vegetation, and land use and the known sensitivity of biodiversity to these changes. This study identified a ranking of the importance of drivers of change, a ranking of the biomes with respect to expected changes, and the major sources of uncertainties. For terrestrial ecosystems, land-use change probably will have the largest effect, followed by climate change, nitrogen deposition, biotic exchange, and elevated carbon dioxide concentration. For freshwater ecosystems, biotic exchange is much more important. Mediterranean climate and grassland ecosystems likely will experience the greatest proportional change in biodiversity because of the substantial influence of all drivers of biodiversity change. Northern temperate ecosystems are estimated to experience the least biodiversity change because major land-use change has already occurred. Plausible changes in biodiversity in other biomes depend on interactions among the causes of biodiversity change. These interactions represent one of the largest uncertainties in projections of future biodiversity change."
404	SandJensen2007.pdf	"Sand-Jensen, K. 2007. How to write consistently boring scientific literature. Oikos 116:723-727"	5	"Although scientists typically insist that their research is very exciting and adventurous when they talk to laymen and prospective students, the allure of this enthusiasm is too often lost in the predictable, stilted structure and language of their scientific publications. I present here, a top-10 list of recommendations for how to write consistently boring scientific publications. I then discuss why we should and how we could make these contributions more accessible and exciting."
405	Sarukhan1974.pdf	"Sarukhan, J.; Gadgil, M. 1974. Studies on plant demography: Ranunculus repens L., R. bulbosus L. and R. acris L.: III. A mathematical model incorporating multiple modes of reproduction. Journal of Ecology 62:921-936"	16	"This paper presents a comparative population dynamics study of three closely related species of buttercups (Ranunculus repens, R. acris, and R. bulbosus). The study is based on an investigation of the behaviour of the seeds in soil under field conditions and a continuous monitoring of survival and reproduction of some 9000 individual plants over a period of 2 1/2 years in a coastal grassland in North Wales. The data were analysed with the help of an extension of Leslie's matrix method which makes possible a simultaneous treatment of vegetative and sexual reproduction. It was found that R. repens (a) depends more heavily on vegetative as compared with sexual reproduction, (b) shows indications of negatively density-dependent population regulation, and (c) exhibits little variation in population growth rates from site to site and from one year to the next. In contrast, R. bulbosus (a) depends exclusively on sexual reproduction, (b) shows indications of a positively density-dependent population behaviour, and (c) exhibits great variation in population growth rates from site to site and from one year to the next. R. acris exhibits an intermediate behaviour in all these respects. It is suggested that the attributes of R. repens are those expected of a species inhabiting a stable environment, while R. bulbosus exhibits some of the characteristics of a fugitive species."
406	Scheffer2001.pdf	"Scheffer, M. et al. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591-596"	6	"All ecosystems are exposed to gradual changes in climate, nutrient loading, habitat fragmentation or biotic exploitation. Nature is usually assumed to respond to gradual change in a smooth way. However, studies on lakes, coral reefs, oceans, forests and arid lands have shown that smooth change can be interrupted by sudden drastic switches to a contrasting state. Although diverse events can trigger such shifts, recent studies show that a loss of resilience usually paves the way for a switch to an alternative state. This suggests that strategies for sustainable management of such ecosystems should focus on maintaining resilience."
407	Scheiner2008.pdf	"Scheiner, S.M.; Willig, M.R. 2008. A general theory of ecology. Theoretical Ecology 1:21-28"	8	No Abstract
408	Schindler1974.pdf	Schindler D.W.; Fee A.J. 1974. Experimental lakes area : whole-lake experiments in eutrophication. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 31:937-953	17	"The following whole-lake experiments are described:Lake 227, fertilized for 5 yr with phosphate and nitrate, has shown an enormous increase in phytoplankton, in spite of low carbon concentrations. The carbon necessary for production of algal blooms was found to invade from the atmosphere.Lake 304, eutrophied by fertilization with phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon in 1971 and 1972, recovered rapidly when phosphorus fertilization was terminated.Lake 226 was split in half with a curtain. One half was fertilized with carbon and nitrogen and the other was fertilized with phosphorus, carbon, and nitrogen. The half of the lake receiving phosphorus developed an algal bloom and the other half did not.Lake 302, which had carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus added to the hypolimnion, did not develop algal blooms in summer. Small phytoplankton blooms were found under ice in early December, but all nutrients were efficiently sedimented and unavailable the following year.The above studies illustrate clearly that phosphorus control is an efficient primary step in preventing or checking eutrophication problems. A review of other published and ongoing studies in the Experimental lakes area is given, illustrating the role which large-scale experiments can play in interpreting the following year"
409	Schindler1977.pdf	"Schindler, D.W. 1977. Evolution of phosphorus limitation in lakes. Science 195:260-262"	3	No Abstract
410	Schipper2008.pdf	"Schipper, J. et al. 2008. The status of the World's land and marine mammals : diversity, threat and knowledge. Science 322:225-230"	6	"Knowledge of mammalian diversity is still surprisingly disparate, both regionally and taxonomically. Here, we present a comprehensive assessment of the conservation status and distribution of the world's mammals. Data, compiled by 1700+ experts, cover all 5487 species, including marine mammals. Global macroecological patterns are very different for land and marine species but suggest common mechanisms driving diversity and endemism across systems. Compared with land species, threat levels are higher among marine mammals, driven by different processes (accidental mortality and pollution, rather than habitat loss), and are spatially distinct (peaking in northern oceans, rather than in Southeast Asia). Marine mammals are also disproportionately poorly known. These data are made freely available to support further scientific developments and conservation action."
411	Schluter1992.pdf	"Schluter, D. & McPhail, J.D. 1992. Ecological character displacement and speciation in sticklebacks. The American Naturalist 140:85-108"	24	"We present evidence of ecological character displacement among species of threespined sticklebacks that inhabit small lakes of coastal British Columbia. Geological data suggest that the populations resulted from multiple divergence and speciation events over the past 13,000 yr. In lakes with two species, one is invariably ""limnetic"" in morphology and habitat, and the other is ""benthic."" Other lakes contain a single form morphologically intermediate between sympatric species and exploiting both habitat's. Within solitary populations individuals exploit one habitat or the other according to their morphology, which underscores the divergent selection pressures operating on either side of the habitat boundary. Our results satisfy at least four of the six major criteria for demonstrating the occurrence of character displacement: (1) a statistical null model of no displacement is easily rejected; (2) variation between and within populations is genetically based; (3) differences in sympatry reflect evolutionary shifts, not merely the biased extinction of similar forms; and (4) morphology is closely linked to resource use. Minimal resource differences between one- and two-species lakes and the presence of competition between similar phenotypes are still to be established. Our data suggest that competition for food has played a critical role in the divergence between species. We consider the possibility that it also helped in species formation, which would expand its potential role in adaptive radiation."
412	Schluter1988.pdf	"Schluter, D. 1988. The evolution of finch communities on islands and continents: Kenya vs. Galapagos. Ecological Monographs 58:230-249"	20	"I describe the nonbreeding finch community of several habitats in continental Kenya, East Africa, and compare it with previously described communities of granivorous finches on Galapagos islands. The purpose of the comparison is to explore differences in structure between communities that have evolved on a continent and on an isolated archipelago, and to suggest reasons for the differences. The ultimate goal is to infer the factors important in the evolution of finch communities, of which the majority have a continental origin. Four factors that might be expected to influence finch communities differently in Kenya than Galapagos are: a greater diversity of possible competitors, an abundance of predators, movement between localities, and a greater diversity of resources. Differences predicted on the basis of these four factors are compared with actual differences between Kenya and Galapagos, in order to estimate their relative importance. The communities of Kenya and Galapagos were surprisingly different. Despite the greater age of the Kenya fauna, the diversity of beak sizes was less, the range of seed sizes exploited was less, and the overall utilization of seed resources by finches was incomplete. Species in Kenya were more differentiated by habitat, microhabitat, and seed species, and less differentiated by seed size than finches in Galapagos. Diets were on average more taxonomically specialized, and associations between diet and beak and body dimensions were correspondingly weaker. Kenya finches were sensitive to the proximity of trees and shrubs (cover) while foraging. These results, together with observations from a limited number of other studies, suggest that a dichotomy may exist between the finch communities of continents and isolated archipelagos. However, like Galapagos, local finch density in Kenya was related to food abundance, and diet overlaps between species coexisting in the same locality were low. Comparison of results with predictions from hypotheses based on the four factors suggests that competition among the large diversity of granivorous species in Kenya (i.e., finches and other granivorous birds, rodents, and ants) is a major reason for the differences between the finch communities of Kenya and Galapagos. The narrow range of beak and seed sizes used by finch species in Kenya is consistent with competition from other taxa, and competition between the many finch species constrained to a narrow range of seed sizes may explain the more pronounced habitat, microhabitat, and diet specializations. Thus, while the finch communities of continents and isolated archipelagos may differ in structure, there is an indication that in large part they represent alternative outcomes of the same process. Predation risk is the most likely cause of a preference for feeding near cover in Kenya, and it may explain why certain seed resources are not exploited by finches, such as ground seeds in areas of poor visibility (dense grasses). Most species appeared to be similarly sensitive to risk of predation; for example, finch species showed little partitioning along an axis of distance to cover. Thus, the main effect of predation on community evolution in Kenya may have been to further confine the resource spectrum available to finches, a role similar to that of competition from other taxa. There was no evidence that the effects of competition within localities were swamped by an influx of immigrant individuals and species. However, lesser indirect effects of movement may be present; movement may elevate local species diversity and thereby influence community structure by increasing the diversity of potential competitors and predators. The prediction that a greater diversity of resources in Kenya would lead to a greater diversity of morphological forms was not upheld, suggesting that resource differences are less influential than other factors."
413	Schmidt2011.pdf	"Schmidt, M.W. et al. 2011. Persistence of soil organic matter as an ecosystem property. Nature 478:49-56"	8	"Globally, soil organic matter (SOM) contains more than three times as much carbon as either the atmosphere or terrestrial vegetation. Yet it remains largely unknown why some SOM persists for millennia whereas other SOM decomposes readily-and this limits our ability to predict how soils will respond to climate change. Recent analytical and experimental advances have demonstrated that molecular structure alone does not control SOM stability: in fact, environmental and biological controls predominate. Here we propose ways to include this understanding in a new generation of experiments and soil carbon models, thereby improving predictions of the SOM response to global warming."
414	Schoener1971.pdf	"Schoener, T.W. 1971. Theory of Feeding Strategies. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2:369-40"	30	"Natural history is replete with observations on feeding, yet only recently have investigators begun to treat feeding as a device whose performance as measured in net energy yield/feeding time or some other units assumed commensurate with fitness-may be maximized by natural selection (44, 1 13, 135, 156, 181) . The primary task of a theory of feeding strategies is to specify for a given animal that complex of behavior and morphology best suited to gather food energy in a particular environment. The task is one, therefore, of optimization, and like all optimization problems, it may be tri sected: 1. Choosing a currency: What is to be maximized or minimized? 2. Choosing the appropriate cost-benefit functions: What is the mathematical form of the set of expressions with the currency as the dependent variable? 3. Solving for the optimum: What computational technique best finds ex trema of the cost-benefit function? In this review, most of the following section is devoted to possible answers to the first problem. Then four key aspects of feeding strategies will be considered: (a) the optimal diet, (b) the optimal foraging space, (c) the optimal foraging period, and (d) the optimal foraging-group size. For each, possible cost-benefit formulations will be discussed and compared, and predictions derived from these will be matched with data from the literature on feeding. Because the third problem is an aspect of applied mathematics, it will be mostly ignored. Throughout, emphasis will be placed on strategic aspects of feeding rather than on what Holling (75) has called ""tactics."""
415	Schoener1989.pdf	"Schoener, T.W. 1989. Food webs from the small to the large. Ecology 70:1559-1589"	31	No Abstract
416	Schoener2011.pdf	"Schoener, T.W. 2011. The newest synthesis: understanding the interplay of evolutionary and ecological dynamics. Science 331:426-429"	4	"The effect of ecological change on evolution has long been a focus of scientific research. The reverse-how evolutionary dynamics affect ecological traits-has only recently captured our attention, however, with the realization that evolution can occur over ecological time scales. This newly highlighted causal direction and the implied feedback loop-eco-evolutionary dynamics-is invigorating both ecologists and evolutionists and blurring the distinction between them. Despite some recent relevant studies, the importance of the evolution-to-ecology pathway across systems is still unknown. Only an extensive research effort involving multiple experimental approaches-particularly long-term field experiments-over a variety of ecological communities will provide the answer."
417	Sexton2009.pdf	"Sexton, J.P. 2009. Evolution and Ecology of Species Range Limits. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 40:415-436"	22	"Species range limits involve many aspects of evolution and ecology, from species distribution and abundance to the evolution of niches. Theory sug- gests myriad processes by which range limits arise, including competitive exclusion, Allee effects, and gene swamping; however, most models remain empirically untested. Range limits are correlated with a number of abiotic and biotic factors, but further experimentation is needed to understand un- derlying mechanisms. Range edges are characterized by increased genetic isolation, genetic differentiation, and variability in individual and population performance, but evidence for decreased abundance and fitness is lacking. Evolution of range limits is understudied in natural systems; in particular, the role of gene flow in shaping range limits is unknown. Biological invasions and rapid distribution shifts caused by climate change represent large-scale experiments on the underlying dynamics of range limits. A better fusion of experimentation and theory will advance our understanding of the causes of range limits."
418	Shaffer1981.pdf	"Shaffer, M.L. 1981. Minimum Population Sizes for Species Conservation. BioScience 31:131-134"	4	"Preservation of wild populations implies their persistence, but biological persistence is a relative term. This paper outlines criteria for what constitutes successful preservation and the methods available for determining population sizes and their area requirements to meet these criteria. "
419	Shea2002.pdf	"Shea, K.; Chesson, P. 2002. Community ecology theory as a framework for biological invasions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17:170-176"	7	"Community ecology theory can be used to understand biological invasions by applying recent niche concepts to alien species and the communities that they invade. These ideas lead to the concept of �niche opportunity�, which defines conditions that promote invasions in terms of resources, natural enemies, the physical environment, interactions between these factors, and the manner in which they vary in time and space. Niche opportunities vary naturally between communities but might be greatly increased by disruption of communities, especially if the original community members are less well adapted to the new conditions. Recent niche theory clarifies the prediction that low niche opportunities (invasion resistance) result from high species diversity. Conflicting empirical patterns of invasion resistance are potentially explained by covarying external factors. These various ideas derived from community ecology provide a predictive framework for invasion ecology."
420	Sherratt1995.pdf	"Sherratt, J.A.; Lewis, M.A.; Fowler, A.C. 1995. Ecological chaos in the wake of invasion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 92:2524-2528"	5	"Irregularities in observed population densities have traditionally been attributed to discretization of the underlying dynamics. We propose an alternative explanation by demonstrating the evolution of spatiotemporal chaos in reaction-diffusion models for predator-prey interactions. The chaos is generated naturally in the wake of invasive waves of predators. We discuss in detail the mechanism by which the chaos is generated. By considering a mathematical caricature of the predator-prey models, we go on to explain the dynamical origin of the irregular behavior and to justify our assertion that the behavior we present is a genuine example of spatiotemporal chaos."
421	Shipley2006.pdf	"Shipley, B.; Vile, D.; Garnier, E. 2006. From Plant Traits to Plant Communities: A Statistical Mechanistic Approach to Biodiversity. Science 314:812-814"	3	"We developed a quantitative method, analogous to those used in statistical mechanics, to predict how biodiversity will vary across environments, which plant species from a species pool will be found in which relative abundances in a given environment, and which plant traits determine community assembly. This provides a scaling from plant traits to ecological communities while bypassing the complications of population dynamics. Our method treats community development as a sorting process involving species that are ecologically equivalent except with respect to particular functional traits, which leads to a constrained random assembly of species; the relative abundance of each species adheres to a general exponential distribution as a function of its traits. Using data for eight functional traits of 30 herbaceous species and community-aggregated values of these traits in 12 sites along a 42-year chronosequence of secondary succession, we predicted 94% of the variance in the relative abundances."
422	Shmida1985.pdf	"Shmida, A.; Wilson, M.V. 1985. Biological Determinants of Species Diversity. Journal of Biogeography 12:43831"	1	"We consider four categories or biological mechanisms of determinants which cause and maintain species diversity: niche relations, habitat diversity, mass effects and ecological equivalency. Two of these determinants are original to this paper: mass effect, the establishment of species in sites where they cannot be self-maintaining; and ecological equivalency, the coexistence of species with effectively identical niche and habitat requirements. The mode of action and ecological implications of each biological determinant are discussed using a schematic method for measuring alpha (community), beta (differentiation), and gamma (regional) diversities. The importance of mass effects and ecological equivalency to species richess is documented with several types of field data from Israel and California, U.S.A. Floristic richness and, in particular, the richness of floristic transitions, are discussed and interpreted by use of the biological determinants of diversity. Contact transition between distinct floras are rich predominantly because of mass effects. Transitions induced by marked environmental changes are rich because of the combined influences of habitat diversity and mass effects. The rate at which species richness increases with sample area is related to the combined effects of all four biological determinants. This complexity explains the failures of simple species-area models. The relative intensity of each determinant is related to area: niche relations are most important at within-community scales, habitat diversity most important at both within-community and landscape scales, and ecological equivalency most important at regional scales. We suggest that understanding patterns of species diversity will be enhanced by the partitioning of total species richness into the richness caused by each of the four ecologically distinct determinants of diversity."
423	Shurin2006.pdf	"Shurin, J.B.; Gruner, D.S.; Hillebrand, H. 2006. All wet or dried up? Real differences between aquatic and terrestrial food webs. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 273:42248"	1	"Ecologists have greatly advanced our understanding of the processes that regulate trophic structure and dynamics in ecosystems. However, the causes of systematic variation among ecosystems remain controversial and poorly elucidated. Contrasts between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems in particular have inspired much speculation, but only recent empirical quantification. Here, we review evidence for systematic differences in energy flow and biomass partitioning between producers and herbivores, detritus and decomposers, and higher trophic levels. The magnitudes of different trophic pathways vary considerably, with less herbivory, more decomposers and more detrital accumulation on land. Aquatic-terrestrial differences are consistent across the global range of primary productivity, indicating that structural contrasts between the two systems are preserved despite large variation in energy input. We argue that variable selective forces drive differences in plant allocation patterns in aquatic and terrestrial environments that propagate upward to shape food webs. The small size and lack of structural tissues in phytoplankton mean that aquatic primary producers achieve faster growth rates and are more nutritious to heterotrophs than their terrestrial counterparts. Plankton food webs are also strongly size-structured, while size and trophic position are less strongly correlated in most terrestrial (and many benthic) habitats. The available data indicate that contrasts between aquatic and terrestrial food webs are driven primarily by the growth rate, size and nutritional quality of autotrophs. Differences in food-web architecture (food chain length, the prevalence of omnivory, specialization or anti-predator defences) may arise as a consequence of systematic variation in the character of the producer community."
424	Sibly2002.pdf	"Sibly, R.M.; Hone, J. 2002. Population growth rate and its determinants: an overview. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 357:1153-1170"	18	"We argue that population growth rate is the key unifying variable linking the various facets of population ecology. The importance of population growth rate lies partly in its central role in forecasting future population trends; indeed if the form of density dependence were constant and known, then the future population dynamics could to some degree be predicted. We argue that population growth rate is also central to our understanding of environmental stress: environmental stressors should be defined as factors which when first applied to a population reduce population growth rate. The joint action of such stressors determines an organism's ecological niche, which should be defined as the set of environmental conditions where population growth rate is greater than zero (where population growth rate = r = log(e)(N(t+1)/N(t))). While environmental stressors have negative effects on population growth rate, the same is true of population density, the case of negative linear effects corresponding to the well-known logistic equation. Following Sinclair, we recognize population regulation as occurring when population growth rate is negatively density dependent. Surprisingly, given its fundamental importance in population ecology, only 25 studies were discovered in the literature in which population growth rate has been plotted against population density. In 12 of these the effects of density were linear; in all but two of the remainder the relationship was concave viewed from above. Alternative approaches to establishing the determinants of population growth rate are reviewed, paying special attention to the demographic and mechanistic approaches. The effects of population density on population growth rate may act through their effects on food availability and associated effects on somatic growth, fecundity and survival, according to a 'numerical response', the evidence for which is briefly reviewed. Alternatively, there may be effects on population growth rate of population density in addition to those that arise through the partitioning of food between competitors; this is 'interference competition'. The distinction is illustrated using a replicated laboratory experiment on a marine copepod, Tisbe battagliae. Application of these approaches in conservation biology, ecotoxicology and human demography is briefly considered. We conclude that population regulation, density dependence, resource and interference competition, the effects of environmental stress and the form of the ecological niche, are all best defined and analysed in terms of population growth rate."
425	Silvertown2004.pdf	"Silvertown, J. 2004. Plant coexistence and the niche. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19:605-611"	7	"How large numbers of competing plant species manage to coexist is a major unresolved question in community ecology. The classical explanation, that each species occupies its own niche, seems at first unlikely because most plants require the same set of resources and acquire these in a limited number of ways. However, recent studies, although few in number and incomplete in many ways, do suggest that plants segregate along various environmental niche axes, including gradients of light, soil moisture and root depth, and that partitioning of soil nutrients occurs, possibly through the mediation of microbial symbionts, some of which are more species specific than was previously thought. Although it is unlikely that niche separation along environmental axes is the only mechanism of coexistence in any large community, the evidence now suggests that it plays a more significant role than has been previously appreciated. More research into the consequences of various known tradeoffs is likely to uncover further cases of niche separation facilitating coexistence."
426	Simberloff1983.pdf	"Simberloff, D. 1983. Competition theory, hypothesis-testing, and other community ecological buzzwords. The American Naturalist 5:626-635"	10	No Abstract
427	Simberloff1976.pdf	"Simberloff, D. 1976. Experimental Zoogeography of Islands : Effects of Island Size. Ecology 57:629-648"	20	"A controlled experiment performed on 8 small mangrove islands constituted an exact test of several biogeographic hypotheses which had rested largely on unsatisfying statis- tical treatments. The islands were censused for arboreal arthropods; each contained a different subset of a species pool of   �_500. Sections of the islands were then removed and censuses retaken after a waiting period; this procedure was repeated on four islands a second time. The results were consistent with a model which posits the islands as originally in a state of dynamic equilibrium between immigration and extinction, then re-equilibrating quickly when forced into an oversaturated condition. It was specifically demonstrated that: (1) species number increases with island size alone, independent of habitat diversity; (2) the increase with area is faster on separate islands than on increasing subsections of one island; (3) the area effect and the underlying dynamic equilibrium are not due only to an increased sample of transients and vagrants on larger islands, though there are a number of species which are particularly prone to quick extinction and which contribute disproportionately to the observed high turn- over rates; and (4) predictions of the effects of decreased area on species composition can be stochastic at best, not deterministic. The equilibrium theory prediction of higher turnover rate on smaller islands could not be conclusively tested because of small sample size. Several species interactions suggested by the distributional data are so subtle that it is apparent that much more intensive work will be required to demonstrate even the existence of interactions, let alone whether they are important. It is clear that much of the dynamic equilibrium and its associated turnover in this system can be ascribed to individual species characteristics and the effects of a rigorous physical environment"
428	Simberloff1969.pdf	"Simberloff, D.S. et al. 1969. Experimental Zoogeography of Islands : The Colonization of Empty Islands. Ecology 50:278-296"	19	"We report here the first evidence of faunistic equilibrium obtained through controlled, replicated experiments, together with an analysis of the immigration and extinction processes of animal species based on direct observations. The colonization of six small mangrove islands in Florida Bay by terrestrial arthropods was monitored at frequent intervals for 1 year after removal of the original fauna by methyl bromide fumigation. Both the observed data and climatic considerations imply that seasonality had little effect upon the basic shape of the colonization curves of species present vs. time. By 250 days after defaunation, the faunas of all the islands except the most distant one (@'EI@') had regained species numbers and composition similar to those of untreated islands even though population densities were still abnormally low. Although early colonists included both weak and strong fliers, the former, particularly psocopterans, were usually the first to produce large populations. Among these same early invaders were the taxa displaying both the highest extinction rates and the greatest variability in species composition on the different islands. Ants, the ecological dominants of mangrove islands, were among the last to colonize, but they did so with highest degree of predictability. The colonization curves plus static observations on untreated islands indicate strongly that a dynamic equilibrium number of species exists for any island. We believe the curves are produced by colonization involving little if any interaction, then a gradual decline as interaction becomes important, and finally, a lasting dynamic equilibrium. Equations are given for the early immigration, extinction, and colonization curves. Dispersal to these islands is predominantly through aerial transport, both active and passive. Extinction of the earliest colonists is probably caused chiefly by such physical factors as drowning or lack of suitable breeding sites and less commonly by competition and predation. As population sizes increase it is expected that competition and predation will become more important. Observed turnover rates showed wide variance, with most values between 0.05 and 0.50 species/day. True turnover rates are probably much higher, with 0.67 species/day the extreme lower limit on any island. This very high value is at least roughly consistent with the turnover equation derived from the MacArthur-Wilson equilibrium model, which predicts turnover rates on the order of 0.1-1.0 species/day on the experimental islands."
429	Sinervo2010.pdf	Sinervo B. et al. 2010. Erosion of lizard diversity by climate change and altered thermal niches. Science 328:894-899	6	"It is predicted that climate change will cause species extinctions and distributional shifts in coming decades, but data to validate these predictions are relatively scarce. Here, we compare recent and historical surveys for 48 Mexican lizard species at 200 sites. Since 1975, 12% of local populations have gone extinct. We verified physiological models of extinction risk with observed local extinctions and extended projections worldwide. Since 1975, we estimate that 4% of local populations have gone extinct worldwide, but by 2080 local extinctions are projected to reach 39% worldwide, and species extinctions may reach 20%. Global extinction projections were validated with local extinctions observed from 1975 to 2009 for regional biotas on four other continents, suggesting that lizards have already crossed a threshold for extinctions caused by climate change."
430	Soule1985.pdf	"Soul�, M.E. 1985. What Is Conservation Biology? BioScience 35:727-734"	8	"Conservation biology, a new stage in the application of sicnce to conservation problems, addressed the biology of species, communities, and ecosystems that are perturbed, either directly or indirectly, by human activities or other agents. Its goal is to provide principles and tools for preserving biological diversity. In this article I describe its fundamental propositions, and note a few contributions. I also point out that ethical norms are a genuine part of conservation biology, as they are in all mission- or crisis-oriented disciplines."
431	Sousa1979.pdf	"Sousa, W. 1979. Disturbance in Marine Intertidal Boulder Fields: the Nonequilibrium Maintenance of Species Diversity. Ecology 60:1225-1239"	15	"The effects of disturbance on local species diversity were investigated in an algaldominated intertidal boulder field in southern California. In this habitat, the major form of disturbance occurs when waves, generated by winter storms, overturn boulders. These natural physical disturbances open space, interrupt successional sequences, and determine local levels of species diversity. Because small boulders are more frequently overturned than larger ones, the plants and sessile animals of boulder fields are distributed in a patchwork of successional stages. Boulders which are subjected to intermediate disturbance frequencies are usually less dominated than those which are very frequently disturbed, and always less dominated than those which are seldon disturbed. In all seasons most small boulders have fewer species than those of intermediate size. Large boulders also usually have fewer species, except in the spring, when defoliation of the algal canopy during the previous winter has opened space for colonization. Species richness on these boulders declines during summer months, and is less than that on boulders of intermediate size in the fall. Small boulders, with a shorter disturbance interval, support only sparse early successional communities of the green alga, Ulva, and barnacles. Large, infrequently disturbed boulders are dominated by the late successional red alga, Gigartina canaliculata. Intermediate-sized boulders support the most diverse communities composed of Ulva, barnacles, several middle successional species of red algae, and Gigartina canaliculata. Comparison of the pattern of succession on experimentally stabilized boulders with that on unstable ones confirms that differences in the frequency of disturbances are responsible for the above patterns of species composition. The frequency of disturbance also determines the degree of between-boulder variation in species composition and diversity. Small boulders which are frequently overturned sample the available pool of spores and larvae more often. As a result, a greater number of different species occur as single dominants on these boulders. Boulders with an intermediate probability of being disturbed are most variable in species diversity. Assemblages on these boulders range from being dominated by a single species to being very diverse while most communities on boulders which are frequently or seldom disturbed are strongly dominated. Observations on the local densities of three species of middle successional red algae over two year-long periods indicate that most of these are variable in time. More local populations went extinct or became newly established on boulders than remained constant in size. These species persist globally in the boulder field mosaic by colonizing recent openings created by disturbances. These results lend support to a nonequilibrium view of community structure and, along with other studies suggest that disturbances which open space are necessary for the maintenance of diversity in most communities of sessile organisms."
432	Southwood1977.pdf	"Southwood, T. 1977. Habitat, the templet for ecological strategies? Journal of Animal Ecology 46:337-365"	29	No Abstract
433	Spiller1994.pdf	"Spiller, S. 1994. Effects of Top and Intermediate Predators in a Terrestrial Food Web. Ecology 75:182-196"	15	"To determine the effects of lizards and web spiders on species in lower trophic levels, we manipulated their abundances within large field enclosures on Staniel Cay, Bahamas, from May 1989 to March 1992. The experimental design (2 x 2 factorial) measured the separate effects of lizards and spiders and compensatory predation(lizard x spider interaction). In treatments where web spiders were unaltered, mean number of web spider individuals was 1.4 times higher in enclosures with lizards removed than in those with lizards present at natural densities. Total biomass of aerial arthropods caught in sticky traps was 1.4 times higher in treatments with web spiders removed than in treatments with web spiders unaltered. Lizards had no significant effect on aerial arthropods. Total amount of herbivore damage on sea grape leaves was 3.3 times higher in treatments with lizards removed than in treatments with lizards unaltered. Web spiders had no significant effect on leaf damage. The lizard x spider interaction was not significant in each analysis, indicating that compensatory predation was weak. Our results support a model in which the interaction between top predators (lizards) and herbivores is strong, whereas the interaction between intermediate predators (web spiders) and herbivores is weak. Consequently, the net effect of top predators on producers is positive."
434	Stamp2003.pdf	"Stamp, N. 2003. Out of the quagmire of lant defense hypotheses. The Quarterly Review of Biology 78:23-55"	33	"abstract Several hypotheses, mainly Optimal Defense (OD), Carbon:Nutrient Balance (CNB), Growth Rate (GR), and Growth-Differentiation Balance (GDB), have individually served as frameworks for inves-tigating the patterns of plant defense against herbivores, in particular the pattern of constitutive defense. The predictions and tests of these hypotheses have been problematic for a variety of reasons and have led to considerable confusion about the state of the "" theory of plant defense. "" The primary contribution of the OD hypothesis is that it has served as the main framework for investigation of genotypic expression of plant defense, with the emphasis on allocation cost of defense. The primary contribution of the CNB hypothesis is that it has served as the main framework for investigation of how resources affect phenotypic expression of plant defense, often with studies concerned about allo-cation cost of defense. The primary contribution of the GR hypothesis is that it explains how intrinsic growth rate of plants shaped evolutionarily by resource availability affects defensive patterns. The primary contribution of the expanded GDB hypothesis is that it recognizes the constant physiological tradeoff between growth and differentiation at the cellular and tissue levels relative to the selective pressures of resource availability, including explicitly taking into account plant tolerance of damage by enemies. A clearer understanding of these hypotheses and what we have learned from investigations that use them can facilitate development of well-designed experiments that address the gaps in our knowledge of plant defense."
435	Stearns1976.pdf	"Stearns, S.C. 1976. Life-history tactics: a review of the ideas. The Quarterly Review of Biology 51:3"	4	"This review organizes ideas on the evolution of life histories. The key life-history traits are brood size, size of young, the age distribution of reproductive effort, the interaction of reprodutive effort with adult mortality, and the variation int hese traits among an individual's progeny. The general theoretical problems is to predict which combinations of triats will evolve in organisms living in specified circumstances. First consider single traits. Theorists have made the following predictions: (1) Where adult exceeds juvenile mortality, the organism should reproduce only once in its lifetime. Where juvenile exceeds adult mortality, the organisms should reproduce several times. (2) Brood size should maximize the number ofyoung surviving to maturity, summed over the lifetime of the parent. But when optimum brood-size varies unpredictably in time, smaller broods should be favored becasue they decrease the changes of total failure on a given attempt. (3) In expanding populations, selection should minimize age, or social status, or when adult exceeds juvenile mortality, then maturation should be delayed, as it should be in declining populations. (4) Young should increase in size at birth with increased predation risk, and decrease in size with increased resource availability. Theorists have also predicted that only particular combinations of traits should occurin specified circumstances. (5) In growing populations, age at maturity should be minimzed, reproductive effort concentrated early in life, and brood size increased. (6) One view holds that in stable environments, late maturity, multiple broods, a few, large young, parental care, and small reproductive efforts should be favoured (K-selection). In fluctuating environments, early maturity, many small young, reduced parental care, and large reproductive efforst should be favoured (r-selection). (7) But another view holds that when juvenile mortality fluctuates moer than adult mortality, the traits associated with stable and fluctuating environments should be reversed. We need experiments that test the assumptions and predictions reveiwed here, more comprehensive theory that makes more readily falsifiable predictions, and examination of different definitions of fitness."
436	Stearns1989a.pdf	"Stearns, S.C. 1989a. The evolutionary significance of phenotypic plasticity - phenotypic sources of variation among organisms can be described by developmental switches and reaction norms. Bioscience 39:436-445"	10	No Abstract
437	Stearns1989.pdf	"Stearns, S.C. 1989b. Trade-offs in life-history evolution. Functional ecology 3:259-268"	1	"Trade-offs represent the costs paid in the currency of fitness when a beneficial change in one trait is linked to a detrimental change in another. If there were no trade-offs, then selection would drive all traits correlated with fitness to limits imposed by history and design. However, we find that many life-history traits are maintained well within those limits. Therefore, trade-offs must exist. Trade-offs have played a central role in the development of life-history theory, from Gadgil & Bossert (1970), Charnov & Krebs (1973), Schaffer (1972, 1974a, b) and Bell (1980) on to the present. They have been measured through field obser- vations (e.g. Clutton-Brock, Guinness & Albon, 1982, 1983), through experimental manipulations in laboratory (e.g. Partridge & Farquhar, 1981) and field (e.g. Askenmo, 1979), through -phenotypic correlations in the laboratory (e.g. Bell, 1984a, b) and through genetic correlations (e.g. Rose & Charlesworth, 1981a, b), to mention only a few of the more prominent studies. They have been reviewed by Stearns (1976, 1977), Bell (1980), Charlesworth (1980), Warner (1984), Reznick (1985), Partridge & Harvey (1985, 1988) and most thoroughly by Bell & Koufopanou (1986). In addi- tion, the methods used to measure trade-offs have been the subject of criticism (Tuomi, Hakala & Haukioja, 1983; Partridge, 1987) and controversy (Reznick, Perry & Travis, 1986; Bell, 1986)."
438	Steffen2015.pdf	"Steffen, W. et al. 2015. Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347:1259855"	1	"The planetary boundaries framework defines a safe operating space for humanity based on the intrinsic biophysical processes that regulate the stability of the Earth System. Here, we revise and update the planetary boundaries framework, with a focus on the underpinning biophysical science, based on targeted input from expert research communities and on more general scientific advances over the past 5 years. Several of the boundaries now have a two-tier approach, reflecting the importance of cross-scale interactions and the regional-level heterogeneity of the processes that underpin the boundaries. Two core boundaries-climate change and biosphere integrity-have been identified, each of which has the potential on its own to drive the Earth System into a new state should they be substantially and persistently transgressed."
439	Stenseth1997.pdf	"Stenseth, N.C. 1997. Population regulation in snowshoe hare and Canadian lynx: asymmetric food web configurations between hare and lynx. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94:5147-5152"	6	"The snowshoe hare and the Canadian lynx in the boreal forests of North America show 9- to 11-year density cycles. These are generally assumed to be linked to each other because lynx are specialist predators on hares. Based on time series data for hare and lynx, we show that the dominant dimensional structure of the hare series appears to be three whereas that of the lynx is two. The three-dimensional structure of the hare time series is hypothesized to be due to a three-trophic level model in which the hare may be seen as simultaneously regulated from below and above. The plant species in the hare diet appear compensatory to one another, and the predator species may, likewise, be seen as an internally compensatory guild. The lynx time series are, in contrast, consistent with a model of donor control in which their populations are regulated from below by prey availability. Thus our analysis suggests that the classic view of a symmetric hare-lynx interaction is too simplistic. Specifically, we argue that the classic food chain structure is inappropriate: the hare is influenced by many predators other than the lynx, and the lynx is primarily influenced by the snowshoe hare."
440	Stephens1999.pdf	"Stephens, P.A.; Sutherland, W.J.; Freckleton, R.P. 1999. What is the Allee effect? Oikos 87:185"	1	"W. C. Allee brought attention to the possibility of a positive relationship between aspects of fitness and population size over fifty gears ago. This phenomenon, frequently termed the Allee effect, has been the focus of increased interest over the past two decades in the light of concerns over conservation and the problems of rarity, Use of the term suffers from the absence of a clear definition however, with the result that Allee effects are frequently thought to involve only a narrow range of phenomena and are often overlooked altogether. We propose a definition for the effect and attempt to resolve the major issues underlying the confusion surrounding this term."
441	Stommel1963.pdf	"Stommel, H. 1963. Varieties of Oceanographic Experience: The ocean can be investigated as a hydrodynamical phenomenon as well as explored geographically. Science 139:572-576"	5	No Abstract
442	Strayer1988.pdf	"Strayer, D. 1988. On the limits to secondary production. Limnology and Oceanography 33:1217-1220"	4	No Abstract
443	Suding2008.pdf	"Suding, K. et al. 2008. Scaling environmental change through the community-level: a trait-based response-and-effect framework for plants. Global Change Biology 14:1125-1140"	0	"Predicting ecosystem responses to global change is a major challenge in ecology. A critical step in that challenge is to understand how changing environmental conditions influence processes across levels of ecological organization. While direct scaling from individual to ecosystem dynamics can lead to robust and mechanistic predictions, new approaches are needed to appropriately translate questions through the community level. Species invasion, loss, and turnover all necessitate this scaling through community processes, but predicting how such changes may influence ecosystem function is notoriously difficult. We suggest that community-level dynamics can be incorporated into scaling predictions using a trait-based response-effect framework that differentiates the community response to environmental change (predicted by response traits) and the effect of that change on ecosystem processes (predicted by effect traits). We develop a response-and-effect functional framework, concentrating on how the relationships among species' response, effect, and abundance can lead to general predictions concern-ing the magnitude and direction of the influence of environmental change on function. We then detail several key research directions needed to better scale the effects of environmental change through the community level. These include (1) effect and response trait characterization, (2) linkages between response-and-effect traits, (3) the importance of species interactions on trait expression, and (4) incorporation of feedbacks across multiple temporal scales. Increasing rates of extinction and invasion that are modifying communities worldwide make such a research agenda imperative."
444	Sugihara1980.pdf	"Sugihara, G. 1980. Minimal Community Structure: An Explanation of Species Abundance Patterns. The American Naturalist 116:770"	1	"Recent proposals that the canonical lognormal distribution and the resulting species-area constant, z backsimeq 1/4, are artifacts of the general lognormal curve and regression techniques, are shown to be inadequate. An alternative hypothesis is suggested which accounts for these regularities in terms of a hierarchical community structure represented by a sequentially divided niche space. This hierarchical pattern, which can be considered to be a minimal form of community structure, derives from evolutionary and ecological considerations for generating species diversity, and is shown to account for the observed abundance structures of small ensembles as well as large natural communities. Evidence is presented which implies that niche apportionment between species may involve the random division of more than one resource, and an interesting invariance in the pattern of apportionment is observed for assemblages with three species. The possibility that the canonical lognormal distribution is a conceptual artifact resulting from arbitrary systems of classification is considered and shown to be false. Aside from its intuitive appeal, the model presented should be of interest because it offers explanations of two ubiquitous patterns in nature: the canonical lognormal and the resulting species-area constant."
445	Sugihara2012.pdf	"Sugihara, G. et al. 2012. Detecting Causality in Complex Ecosystems. Science 338:496-500"	5	"Identifying causal networks is important for effective policy and management recommendations on climate, epidemiology, financial regulation, and much else. We introduce a method, based on nonlinear state space reconstruction, that can distinguish causality from correlation. It extends to nonseparable weakly connected dynamic systems (cases not covered by the current Granger causality paradigm). The approach is illustrated both by simple models (where, in contrast to the real world, we know the underlying equations/relations and so can check the validity of our method) and by application to real ecological systems, including the controversial sardine-anchovy-temperature problem."
446	Sundstrom1996.pdf	"Sundstrom, L.; Chapuisat, M.; Keller, L. 1996. Conditional Manipulation of Sex Ratios by Ant Workers: A Test of Kin Selection Theory. Science 274:993-995"	3	"Variable queen mating frequencies provide a unique opportunity to study the resolution of worker-queen conflict over sex ratio in social Hymenoptera, because the conflict is maximal in colonies headed by a singly mated queen and is weak or nonexistent in colonies headed by a multiply mated queen. In the wood ant Formica exsecta, workers in colonies with a singly mated queen, but not those in colonies with a multiply mated queen, altered the sex ratio of queen-laid eggs by eliminating males to preferentially raise queens. By this conditional response to queen mating frequency, workers enhance their inclusive fitness."
447	Sutherland2006.pdf	"Sutherland, W.J. et al. 2006. The identification of 100 ecological questions of high policy relevance in the UK. Journal of Applied Ecology 43:617-627"	11	"1. Evidence-based policy requires researchers to provide the answers to ecological questions that are of interest to policy makers. To find out what those questions are in the UK, representatives from 28 organizations involved in policy, together with scientists from 10 academic institutions, were asked to generate a list of questions from their organizations. 2. During a 2-day workshop the initial list of 1003 questions generated from consulting at least 654 policy makers and academics was used as a basis for generating a short list of 100 questions of significant policy relevance. Short-listing was decided on the basis of the preferences of the representatives from the policy-led organizations. 3. The areas covered included most major issues of environmental concern in the UK, including agriculture, marine fisheries, climate change, ecosystem function and land management. 4. The most striking outcome was the preference for general questions rather than narrow ones. The reason is that policy is driven by broad issues rather than specific ones. In contrast, scientists are frequently best equipped to answer specific questions. This means that it may be necessary to extract the underpinning specific question before researchers can proceed. 5. Synthesis and applications. Greater communication between policy makers and scientists is required in order to ensure that applied ecologists are dealing with issues in a way that can feed into policy. It is particularly important that applied ecologists emphasize the generic value of their work wherever possible."
448	Sutherland2013.pdf	"Sutherland, W.J. et al. 2013. Identification of 100 fundamental ecological questions. Journal of Ecology 101:58-67"	10	"1. Fundamental ecological research is both intrinsically interesting and provides the basic knowledge required to answer applied questions of importance to the management of the natural world. The 100th anniversary of the British Ecological Society in 2013 is an opportune moment to reflect on the current status of ecology as a science and look forward to high-light priorities for future work.  2. To do this, we identified 100 important questions of fundamental importance in pure ecology. We elicited questions from ecologists working across a wide range of systems and disciplines. The 754 questions submitted (listed in the online appendix) from 388 participants were narrowed down to the final 100 through a process of discussion, rewording and repeated rounds of voting. This was done during a two-day workshop and thereafter.  3. The questions reflect many of the important current conceptual and technical pre-occupations of ecology. For example, many questions concerned the dynamics of environmental change and complex ecosystem interactions, as well as the interaction between ecology and evolution.  4. The questions reveal a dynamic science with novel subfields emerging. For example, a group of questions was dedicated to disease and micro-organisms and another on human impacts and global change reflecting the emergence of new subdisciplines that would not have been foreseen a few decades ago.  5. The list also contained a number of questions that have perplexed ecologists for decades and are still seen as crucial to answer, such as the link between population dynamics and life-history evolution.  6. Synthesis. These 100 questions identified reflect the state of ecology today. Using them as an agenda for further research would lead to a substantial enhancement in understanding of the discipline, with practical relevance for the conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem function."
449	Svenning2003.pdf	"Svenning, J-C. 2003. Deterministic Plio-Pleistocene extinctions in the European cool-temperate tree flora. Ecology Letters 6:646-653"	0	"Extinctions have been important in the shaping of modern phytogeographic patterns. A classic example is the heavy Plio-Pleistocene losses that have caused Europe to have a depauperate temperate tree flora compared to eastern North America and eastern Asia. To investigate the mechanisms involved in this extinction event, I test the hypothesis that the present European status (extinct, relictual, or widespread) of cool-temperate tree genera found in Pliocene Europe is predictable from their modern climatic requirements. As a prerequisite for this analysis, I test for genus-level conservatism in climatic requirements by comparing congeneric values across Europe, eastern Asia and North America, and find strong evidence hereof. I find a high degree of ecological determinism in the fate of European Pliocene tree genera, still widespread taxa being more tolerant of cold growing season and winter temperatures than extinct and relictual taxa, and relictual taxa being more drought tolerant than extinct taxa."
450	Svenning2013.pdf	"Svenning, J-C.; Sandel, B. 2013. Disequilibrium vegetation dynamics under future climate change. American Journal of Botany 100:1266-1286"	21	"  Premise of the study: Near-future climate changes are likely to elicit major vegetation changes. Disequilibrium dynamics, which occur when vegetation comes out of equilibrium with climate, are potentially a key facet of these. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for making accurate predictions, informing conservation planning, and understanding likely changes in ecosystem function on time scales relevant to society. However, many predictive studies have instead focused on equilibrium end-points with little consideration of the transient trajectories.  Methods: We review what we should expect in terms of disequilibrium vegetation dynamics over the next 50-200 yr, covering a broad range of research fields including paleoecology, macroecology, landscape ecology, vegetation science, plant ecology, invasion biology, global change biology, and ecosystem ecology.  Key results: The expected climate changes are likely to induce marked vegetation disequilibrium with climate at both leading and trailing edges, with leading-edge disequilibrium dynamics due to lags in migration at continental to landscape scales, in local population build-up and succession, in local evolutionary responses, and in ecosystem development, and trailing-edge disequilibrium dynamics involving delayed local extinctions and slow losses of ecosystem structural components. Interactions with habitat loss and invasive pests and pathogens are likely to further contribute to disequilibrium dynamics. Predictive modeling and climate-change experiments are increasingly representing disequilibrium dynamics, but with scope for improvement.  Conclusions: The likely pervasiveness and complexity of vegetation disequilibrium is a major challenge for forecasting ecological dynamics and, combined with the high ecological importance of vegetation, also constitutes a major challenge for future nature conservation."
451	Svenning2004.pdf	"Svenning, J-C.; Skov, F. 2004. Limited filling of the potential range in European tree species. Ecology Letters 7:565-573"	9	"The relative roles of environment and history in controlling large-scale species distributions are important not only theoretically, but also for forecasting range responses to climatic change. Here, we use atlas data to examine the extent to which 55 tree species fill their climatically determined potential ranges in Europe. Quantifying range filling (R/P) as realized/potential range size ratios using bioclimatic envelope modelling we find mean R/P = 38.3% (  �30.3% SD). Many European tree species naturalize extensively outside their native ranges, providing support for interpreting the many low R/Ps as primarily reflecting dispersal limitation. R/P increases strongly with latitudinal range centroid and secondarily with hardiness and decreases weakly with longitudinal range centroid. Hence, European tree species ranges appear strongly controlled by geographical dispersal constraints on post-glacial expansion as well as climate. Consequently, we expect European tree species to show only limited tracking of near-future climate changes."
452	Taylor1993.pdf	"Taylor, P.D. et al. 1993. Connectivity Is a Vital Element of Landscape Structure. Oikos 68:571-573"	3	No Abstract
453	Terborgh1971.pdf	"Terborgh, J. 1971. Distribution on Environmental Gradients : Theory and a Preliminary Interpretation of Distributional Patterns in the Avifauna of the Cordillera Vilcabamba, Peru. Ecology 52:23-40"	18	"A new theoretical approach to the study of distribution is presented in this paper. The central question concerns the types of interactions between organisms and their surroun(1- ings which may function to impose limits on the occurrence of species on a smooth unifactorial environmental gradient. The theory is constructed of a set of three complementary and mutually exclusive models which arbitrarily are given the power of accounting for all possible listributions. Each of the models predicts a different pattern of distribution within a group ot organisms and each contains twio or more unique features which serve to distinguish it from the others. In their simplest form the models state that the occurrence of species is limited respectively by: (i) physical or biological conditions that vary in parallel with the measured gra(lient, (ii) competitive exclusion and (iii) environmental discontinuities ecotoness). P're- dictions of each model include (a) the shape of population density curves, (b) the shape of congruity (faunal attenuation) curves, (c) distributional patterns at the termini of gradients, and (A ) the form of the frequency distril)ution of ecological amplitudes. Azlpplication of the theory is demonstrated with data obtained in a study of the (listribution of bird species on a uniform elevational gradient in the Eastern Andes of Peru. A series of four expeditions to the Northern Massif of the Cordillera Vilcabamba, a vast undisturhed mountain xwilderness, provided information on the upper and lower limits of occurrence of over 410 species of forest birds. Faunal composition and the relative abundances of many species wd ere estimated at each of 15 stations through large netted samples of birds (170-604 indi- viduals). Following a protocol described in the text, the upper and lower limits of 261 species wvere assigned to one or another of the three models. Certain limitations of method result in a small number of unavoidable errors in these assignments; hence the outcome of the parti- tioning procedure is only a first approximation. As evaluated by this preliminary analysis. the three mechanisms of distributional limitation differ appreciably in their importance in the Vilcabamba avifauna. Ecotones account for less than 20% of the distributional limits, com- petitive exclusion for about one-third of the limits and gradually changing conditions along the gradient for about one-half of the limits. The"
454	Thompson1999.pdf	"Thompson, J.D. et al. 1996. Untangling multiple factors in spatial distributions: Lilies, Gophers, and rocks. Ecology 77:1698-1715"	18	"Despite broad consensus on the power of experiments, correlational studies are still important in ecology, and may become more so as spatial studies proliferate. Conventional correlation analysis, however, (1) fundamentally conflicts with the basic ecological concept of limiting factors, and (2) ignores spatial structure in data, which can produce spuriously high correlations. Especially for field data, bivariate scattergrams often show ""factor-ceiling"" distributions wherein data points are widely scattered beneath an upper limit, due to the action of other factors. Although most ecological information in such a graph resides in the upper limit, standard correlation/regression does not characterize such limits. If other factors have been measured, path analysis may be useful, but otherwise, direct description of ecological ceilings is desirable. Objective methods for doing so are barely known to ecologists; we review recent proposals for statistical testing and data display. For correcting correlations for spatial patchiness of the variables, another new technique has been proposed by Clifford, Richardson, and Hemon: by reducing the effective sample size to account for the autocorrelation it allows significance tests. We discuss these issues with reference to counts of glacier lily (Erythronium grandiflorum) seedlings, vegetative plants, and flowering plants in a square grid of 256 contiguous 2 x 2 m quadrats in subalpine mead- ow in western Colorado. We also measured soil mois- ture, pocket gopher activity, and soil rockiness. All six variables showed significant patchiness (spatial au- tocorrelation) at similar scales. The abundance of flowering plants was positively correlated with rock- iness and negatively correlated with moisture and go- pher activity. Although limited seed dispersal suggests that seedlings should be spatially associated with flow- ering plants, no such correlation existed: indeed, ex- amination of the bivariate scatterplot suggests a neg- ative association, in the particular and restricted sense that seedlings are abundant only in quadrats where flowering is low. We hypothesize that seed germina- tion is higher in less rocky areas of deeper, moister soil than in the rocky areas where most seeds land, but that seedlings seldom reach maturity unless they are in a rocky refuge from predation. Results from path analysis are consistent with this hypothesis. Such an ecological situation should weaken natural selec- tion on characters enhancing seed dispersal."
455	Thomson1996.pdf	"Thompson, J. N. 1999. The evolution of species interactions. Science 284:2116-2118"	3	"Interactions between species are as evolutionarily malleable as the species themselves and have played a central role in the diversification and organization of life. This malleability creates complex geographic mosaics in interspecific interactions that can evolve rapidly over decades, blurring the distinction between evolutionary time and ecological time and making the study of coevolution crucial for human health and welfare."
456	Thorson1966.pdf	"Thorson, G. 1966. Some factors influencing the recruitment and establishment of benthic marine communities. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 2: 267�293"	27	No Abstract
457	Thuiller2005.pdf	"Thuiller, W. et al. 2005. Climate change threats to plant diversity in Europe. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102:8245-8250"	6	"Climate change has already triggered species distribution shifts in many parts of the world. Increasing impacts are expected for the future, yet few studies have aimed for a general understanding of the regional basis for species vulnerability. We projected late 21st century distributions for 1,350 European plants species under seven climate change scenarios. Application of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Red List criteria to our projections shows that many European plant species could become severely threatened. More than half of the species we studied could be vulnerable or threatened by 2080. Expected species loss and turnover per pixel proved to be highly variable across scenarios (27-42% and 45-63% respectively, averaged over Europe) and across regions (2.5-86% and 17-86%, averaged over scenarios). Modeled species loss and turnover were found to depend strongly on the degree of change in just two climate variables describing temperature and moisture conditions. Despite the coarse scale of the analysis, species from mountains could be seen to be disproportionably sensitive to climate change (approximately 60% species loss). The boreal region was projected to lose few species, although gaining many others from immigration. The greatest changes are expected in the transition between the Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian regions. We found that risks of extinction for European plants may be large, even in moderate scenarios of climate change and despite inter-model variability."
458	Tilman1977.pdf	"Tilman, D. 1994. Competition and biodiversity in spatially structured habitats. Ecology 75:42401"	1	"All organisms, esecially terrestrial plants and other sessile species, interact mainly with their neighbors, but neighborhoods can differ in composition because of dispersal and mortality. There is increasingly strong evidence that the spatial structure created by these forces profoundly influences the dynamics, composition, and biodiversity of communities. Nonspatial models predict that no more consumer species can coexist at equilibrium than there are limiting resources. In contrast, a similar model that includes neighborhood competition and random dispersal among sites predicts stable coexistence of a potentially unlimited number of species on a single resource. Coexistence cocurs because species with sufficiently high dispersal rates persist in sites not occupied by surperior competitors. Coexistence requires limiting similarity and two-way or three-way interspecific trade-offs among competitive ability, colonization ability and longevity. This spatial competition hypothesis seems to explain the coexistence of the numerous plant species that compete for a single limiting resource in the grasslands of Cedar Creek Natural History Area. It provides a testable, alternative explanation for other high diversity communities, such as tropical forests. The model can be tested (1) by determining if coexisting species have the requisite trade-offs in colonization, competition, and longevity, (2) by addition of propagules to determine if local species abundances are limited by dispersal, and (3) by comparisons of the effects on biodiversity of high rates of propagule addition for species that differ in competitive ability."
459	Tilman1980.pdf	"Tilman, D. et al. 1997. The Influence of Functional Diversity and Composition on Ecosystem Processes. Science 277:1300-1302"	3	No Abstract
460	Tilman1994.pdf	"Tilman, D. 1977. Resource Competition Between Plankton Algae: An Experimental and Theoritical Approach. Ecology 58:338-348"	11	The results of 76 long-term competition experiments between two species of freshwater algae (Asterionellaformosa and Cyclotella meneghiniana) grown along a resource gradient agree with the predictions of two different models of resource competition. Both models are based on the func- tional resource-utilization response of each species to limiting resources. The Monod model and the Variable Internal Stores model of competition made similar predictions. Asterionella was observed to be competitively dominant when both species were phosphate limited; Cyclotella was dominant when both species were silicate limited; and both species stably coexisted when each species was growth- rate limited by a different resource. Almost 75% of the variance in the relative abundances of these two species along a natural silicate-phosphate gradient in Lake Michigan is explained by the Monod model.
461	Tilman1994a.pdf	"Tilman, D. 1980. Resources: a Graphical-Mechanistic Approach To Competition and Predation. The American Naturalist 116:362-393"	1	"In this paper I first offer a way to classify resources and consumers. The classification is an extension of mi- croeconomic theory, which was introduced to ecology by Rapport (1971) and Covich (1972), and which has been employed in the papers of Covich (1974), Leon and Tumpson (1975), and Rapport and Turner (1975, 1977). The shape of the resource-dependent growth isocline of a species is used to classify resources as either (1) essential, (2) substitutable, or (3) hemi-essential. Essential resources are further classified as being either interactive or noninteractive. Substitutable re- sources- are classified as being either complementary, perfectly substitutable, antagonistic, or switching. I then derive a simple graphical technique that allows prediction of the out- comes of consumer-resource interactions when numerous species compete for two resources."
462	Tilman1996.pdf	"Tilman, D. 1999. The ecological consequences of changes in biodiversity: a search for general principles. Ecology 80:1455-1474"	20	"This paper uses theory and experiments to explore the effects of diversity on stability, productivity, and susceptibility to invasion. A model of resource competition predicts that increases in diversity cause com- munity stability to increase, but population stability to decrease. These opposite effects are, to a great extent, explained by how temporal variances in species abundances scale with mean abundance, and by the differential impact of this scaling on population vs. community stability. Community stability also depends on a negative covariance effect (competitive compensation) and on overyielding (ecosystem productivity increasing with diversity). A long-term study in Minnesota grasslands supports these predictions. Models of competition predict, and �eld experiments con�rm, that greater plant diversity leads to greater primary productivity. This diversity-productivity relationship results both from the greater chance that a more productive species would be present at higher diversity (the sampling effect) and from the better     coverage     of habitat heterogeneity caused by the broader range of species traits in a more diverse community (the niche differentiation effect). Both effects cause more complete utilization of limiting resources at higher diversity, which increases resource retention, further increasing productivity. Finally, lower levels of available limiting resources at higher diversity are predicted to decrease the susceptibility of an ecosystem to invasion, supporting the diversity-invasibility hypothesis. This mechanism provides rules for community assembly and invasion resistance. In total, biodiversity should be added to species composition, disturbance, nutrient supply, and climate as a major controller of population and ecosystem dynamics and structure. By their increasingly great directional impacts on all of these controllers, humans are likely to cause major long-term changes in the functioning of ecosystems worldwide. A better understanding of these ecosystem changes is needed if ecologists are to provide society with the knowledge essential for wise management of the earth and its biological resources."
463	Tilman1997.pdf	"Tilman, D. et al. 1994. Habitat destruction and the extinction debt. Nature 371:65-66"	2	"HABITAT destruction is the major cause of species extinctions(1-3) Dominant species often are considered to be free of this threat because they are abundant in the undisturbed fragments that remain after destruction. Here we describe a model that explains multispecies coexistence in patchy habitats(4) and which predicts that their abundance may be fleeting. Even moderate habitat destruction is predicted to cause time-delayed but deterministic extinction of the dominant competitor in remnant patches. Further species are predicted to become extinct, in order from the best to the poorest competitors, as habitat destruction increases. Moreover, the more fragmented a habitat already is, the greater is the number of extinctions caused by added destruction. Because such extinctions occur generations after fragmentation, they represent a debt-a future ecological cost of current habitat destruction."
464	Tilman1999.pdf	"Tilman, D.; Forest, I.; Cowles, J.M. 2014. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 45:471-493"	23	"Species diversity is amajor determinant of ecosystem productivity, stability, invasibility, and nutrient dynamics. Hundreds of studies spanning terres- trial, aquatic, and marine ecosystems show that high-diversity mixtures are approximately twice as productive as monocultures of the same species and that this difference increases through time.These impacts of higher diversity have multiple causes, including interspecific complementarity, greater use of limiting resources, decreased herbivory and disease, and nutrient-cycling feedbacks that increase nutrient stores and supply rates over the long term. These experimentally observed effects of diversity are consistent with pre- dictions based on a variety of theories that share a common feature: All have trade-off-based mechanisms that allow long-term coexistence of many dif- ferent competing species. Diversity loss has an effect as great as, or greater than, the effects of herbivory, fire, drought, nitrogen addition, elevated CO2, and other drivers of environmental change.The preservation, conservation, and restoration of biodiversity should be a high global priority."
465	Tilman2014.pdf	"Tilman, D.; Wedin, D.; Knops, J. 1996. Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems. Nature 379:718-720"	3	"THE functioning and sustainability of ecosystems may depend on their biological diversity(1-8). Elton's(9) hypothesis that more diverse ecosystems are more stable has received much attention(1,3,6,7,10-14), but Darwin's proposal(6,15) that more diverse plant communities are more productive, and the related conjectures(4,5,16,17) that they have lower nutrient losses and more sustainable soils, are less well studied(4-6,8,17,18). Here we use a well-replicated field experiment, in which species diversity was directly controlled, to show that ecosystem productivity in 147 grassland plots increased significantly with plant biodiversity, Moreover, the main limiting nutrient, soil mineral nitrogen, was utilized more completely when there was a greater diversity of species, leading to lower leaching loss of nitrogen from these ecosystems. Similarly, in nearby native grassland, plant productivity and soil nitrogen utilization increased with increasing plant species richness. This supports the diversity-productivity and diversity-sustainability hypotheses. Our results demonstrate that the loss of species threatens ecosystem functioning and sustainability."
466	Tinbergen1963.pdf	"Tinbergen, N. 1963. On aims and methods of ethology. Zeitschrift f�r Tierpsychologie 20:410-433"	24	No Abstract
467	Titman1976.pdf	"Titman, D. 1976. Ecological competition between algae: experimental confirmation of resource-based competition theory. Science 192:463-465"	3	"All possible outcomes of ecological competition, including stable coexistence, were observed in laboratory studies of two species of freshwater diatoms potentially limited by phosphate and silicate. The relative abundance of these nutrients determined the outcome of competition. The observed conditions of coexistence and competitive displacement agree with those predicted solely from the abilities of each species to acquire and utilize limiting nutrients. Coexistence occurred only when the growth rate of each species was limited by a different resource. These results may help explain the regional coexistence in nature of an otherwise paradoxically high number of algal species."
468	Trivers1973.pdf	Trivers R.L. & Willard D.E. 1973. Natural Selection of Parental Ability to Vary the Sex Ratio of Offspring. Science 179:90-92	3	No Abstract
469	Trivers1974.pdf	"Trivers, R.L. 1974 Parent-Offspring Conflict. American Zoologist 14:249-264"	16	"When parent-offspring relations in sexually reproducing species are viewed from the standpoint of the offspring as well as the parent, conflict is seen to be an expected feature of such relations. In particular, parent and offspring are expected to disagree over how long the period of parental investment should last, over the amount of parental investment that should be given, and over the altruistic and egoistic tendencies of the offspring as these tendencies affect other relatives. In addition, under certain conditions parents and offspring are expected to disagree over the preferred sex of the potential offspring. In general, parent-offspring conflict is expected to increase during the period of parental care, and offspring are expected to employ psychological weapons in order to compete with their parents. Detailed data on mother-offspring relations in mammals are consistent with the arguments presented. Conflict in some species, including the human species, is expected to extend to the adult reproductive role of the offspring: under certain conditions parents are expected to attempt to mold an offspring, against its better interests, into a permanent nonreproductive."
470	Tscharntke2012.pdf	"Tscharntke, T. et al. 2012. Landscape moderation of biodiversity patterns and processes - eight hypotheses. Biological Reviews 87:661-685"	25	"Understanding how landscape characteristics affect biodiversity patterns and ecological processes at local and landscape scales is critical for mitigating effects of global environmental change. In this review, we use knowledge gained from human-modified landscapes to suggest eight hypotheses, which we hope will encourage more systematic research on the role of landscape composition and configuration in determining the structure of ecological communities, ecosystem functioning and services. We organize the eight hypotheses under four overarching themes. Section A: 'landscape moderation of biodiversity patterns' includes (1) the landscape species pool hypothesis-the size of the landscape-wide species pool moderates local (alpha) biodiversity, and (2) the dominance of beta diversity hypothesis-landscape-moderated dissimilarity of local communities determines landscape-wide biodiversity and overrides negative local effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity. Section B: 'landscape moderation of population dynamics' includes (3) the cross-habitat spillover hypothesis-landscape-moderated spillover of energy, resources and organisms across habitats, including between managed and natural ecosystems, influences landscape-wide community structure and associated processes and (4) the landscape-moderated concentration and dilution hypothesis-spatial and temporal changes in landscape composition can cause transient concentration or dilution of populations with functional consequences. Section C: 'landscape moderation of functional trait selection' includes (5) the landscape-moderated functional trait selection hypothesis-landscape moderation of species trait selection shapes the functional role and trajectory of community assembly, and (6) the landscape-moderated insurance hypothesis-landscape complexity provides spatial and temporal insurance, i.e. high resilience and stability of ecological processes in changing environments. Section D: 'landscape constraints on conservation management' includes (7) the intermediate landscape-complexity hypothesis-landscape-moderated effectiveness of local conservation management is highest in structurally simple, rather than in cleared (i.e. extremely simplified) or in complex landscapes, and (8) the landscape-moderated biodiversity versus ecosystem service management hypothesis-landscape-moderated biodiversity conservation to optimize functional diversity and related ecosystem services will not protect endangered species. Shifting our research focus from local to landscape-moderated effects on biodiversity will be critical to developing solutions for future biodiversity and ecosystem service management."
471	Turner2010.pdf	"Turner, M.G. 2010. Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world. Ecology 91:2833-2849"	17	"Disturbance regimes are changing rapidly, and the consequences of such changes for ecosystems and linked social-ecological systems will be profound. This paper synthesizes current understanding of disturbance with an emphasis on fundamental contributions to contemporary landscape and ecosystem ecology, then identifies future research priorities. Studies of disturbance led to insights about heterogeneity, scale, and thresholds in space and time and catalyzed new paradigms in ecology. Because they create vegetation patterns, disturbances also establish spatial patterns of many ecosystem processes on the landscape. Drivers of global change will produce new spatial patterns, altered disturbance regimes, novel trajectories of change, and surprises. Future disturbances will continue to provide valuable opportunities for studying pattern-process interactions. Changing disturbance regimes will produce acute changes in ecosystems and ecosystem services over the short (years to decades) and long term (centuries and beyond). Future research should address questions related to (1) disturbances as catalysts of rapid ecological change, (2) interactions among disturbances, (3) relationships between disturbance and society, especially the intersection of land use and disturbance, and (4) feedbacks from disturbance to other global drivers. Ecologists should make a renewed and concerted effort to understand and anticipate the causes and consequences of changing disturbance regimes."
472	Underwood1994.pdf	"Underwood, A.J. 1994. On beyond BACI: Sampling designs that might reliably detect environmental disturbances. Ecological Applications 4:42064"	1	"Much sampling to detect and quantify human environmental disturbances is flawed by a lack of appropriate replication. BACI (Before-After-Control-Impact) designs have only a single control location, and any conclusions from them are illogical. Asym- metrical designs using one putatively impacted and several control locations can reliably detect a variety of environmental impacts, including those that do not affect long-run mean abundances, but do alter temporal variance. When abundances of populations in different locations show temporal interaction, the asymmetrical designs allow tests for impact that are not possible in BACI designs. Asymmetrical designs are also extendable to sample at hierarchical spatial and temporal scales. The power of tests using asymmetrical designs is great for non-interactive sets of abun- dances, but greatest for pulse (short-term) responses to disturbances, large alterations of temporal variance, or combinations of sustained, press responses in mean abundance coupled with altered temporal heterogeneity. Power in temporally interactive sets of data is generally poor. Alternatives to pre-disturbance sampling, including generalized assessment of spatial and temporal variances and experimental impacts, may provide better guidance for de- tection of human disturbances"
473	Underwood2000.pdf	"Underwood, A.J.; Chapman, M.G.; Connell, S.D. 2000. Observations in ecology: you can't make progress on processes without understanding the patterns. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 250:97-115"	19	"Coastal marine ecology is, quite properly, increasingly focussed on experimental tests of hypotheses about processes. These are, however, done to explain observations and patterns. It is therefore appropriate to be able to publish quantitative observations to provide the context and basis for studying mechanisms and processes. Ecologists are concerned about very different types of observations. Some areas of study are still totally dependent on observational, descriptive evidence; some depend on mensurative tests of hypotheses about patterns. Tests of hypotheses about patterns are also needed to validate casual or qualitative observations. Guide-lines for what constitutes appropriate or publishable ecological descriptions are discussed here. These recognize the experimental, hypothesis-testing nature of many descriptive studies and consider the relevance of sound logic and experimental design in the planning, collection and interpretation of observations."
474	VanDerPutten2013.pdf	"Van der Putten, W.H. et al. 2013. Plant-soil feedbacks: the past, the present and future challenges. Journal of Ecology 101:265-276"	12	"1. Plant�soil feedbacks is becoming an important concept for explaining vegetation dynamics, the invasiveness of introduced exotic species in new habitats and how terrestrial ecosystems respond to global land use and climate change. Using a new conceptual model, we show how critical alterations in plant�soil feedback interactions can change the assemblage of plant communities. We highlight recent advances, define terms and identify future challenges in this area of research and discuss how variations in strengths and directions of plant�soil feedbacks can explain succession, invasion, response to climate warming and diversity-productivity relationships. 2. While there has been a rapid increase in understanding the biological, chemical and physical mechanisms and their interdependencies underlying plant�soil feedback interactions, further progress is to be expected from applying new experimental techniques and technologies, linking empirical studies to modelling and field-based studies that can include plant�soil feedback interactions on longer time scales that also include long-term processes such as litter decomposition and mineralization. 3. Significant progress has also been made in analysing consequences of plant�soil feedbacks for biodiversity-functioning relationships, plant fitness and selection. 4. To further integrate plant�soil feedbacks into ecological theory, it will be important to determine where and how observed patterns may be generalized, and how they may influence evolution. 5. Synthesis. Gaining a greater understanding of plant�soil feedbacks and underlying mechanisms is improving our ability to predict consequences of these interactions for plant community composition and productivity under a variety of conditions. Future research will enable better prediction and mitigation of the consequences of human-induced global changes, improve efforts of restoration and conservation and promote sustainable provision of ecosystem services in a rapidly changing world."
475	VanNoordwijk1986.pdf	"Van Noordwijk, A.J.; Dejong, G.; de Jong, G. 1986. Acquisiton and allocation of resources - their influence on variation in life history tactics. American Naturalist 128:137-142"	6	No Abstract
476	VanValen1965.pdf	"Van Valen, L. 1965. Morphological Variation and Width of Ecological Niche. The American Naturalist 99:377-390"	14	"In six bird species convenient for study, niches are known to be broader on some islands than on the mainland. In every case there is also greater variation in a bill measurement on the islands, except for one species in which the niche on the Canary Islands is narrower than that on the mainland. The adjusted variances average about twice as great in the broader niche. These and other results suggest that continuous variation within local populations is often adaptive in itself and is not part of the genetic or phenotypic load. "
477	VanValen1973.pdf	"Van Valen, L. 1973. A new evolutionary law. Evolutionary Theory 1:10959"	1	"All groups for which data exist go extinct a t a rate that as constant for a given group. environment of any homogeneous group of organisms deteriorates at a stochasti- cally constant rate), no definite exceptions exist although a few are possible. Extinction rates are similar within some very broad categories and Vary regularly with size of area inhabited. A new unit of rates for discrete phenomena, the macarthur, is introduced. Laws are appropriate in evolutionary biology. Truth needs more than correct predictions. The Law of Extinction is evidence for ecological significance and comparability of taxa. A non- Markovian hypothesis to explain the law invokes mutually incompatible optima within an adaptive zone. A self-perpetuating fluctuation results which can be stated in terms of an unstudied aspect of zero-sum game theory. The hypothesis can be derived from a view that momentary fitness is the amount of control of resources, which remain constant i n t o t a l amount. The hypothesis implies that long-term fitness has only two components and that events of mutualism are rare. The hypothesis largely explains the observed pattern of molecular evolution."
478	Varley1947.pdf	"Varley, G.C. 1947. The natural control of population balance in the knapweed gall-fly (Urophora jaceana). The Journal of Animal Ecology 16:139-187"	49	No Abstract
479	Vellend2010.pdf	"Vellend, M. 2010. Conceptual Synthesis in Community Ecology. The Quarterly Review of Biology 85:183-206"	24	"Community ecology is often perceived as a ""mess, ""given the seemingly vast number of processes that can underlie the many patterns of interest, and the apparent uniqueness of each study system. However, at the most general level, patterns in the composition and diversity of species-the subject matter of community ecology-are influenced by only four classes of process: selection, drift, speciation, and dispersal. Selection represents deterministic fitness differences among species, drift represents stochastic changes in species abundance, speciation creates new species, and dispersal is the movement of organisms across space. All theoretical and conceptual models in community ecology can be understood with respect to their emphasis on these four processes. Empirical evidence exists for all of these processes and many of their interactions, with a predominance of studies on selection. Organizing the material of community ecology according to this framework can clarify the essential similarities and differences among the many conceptual and theoretical approaches to the discipline, and it can also allow for the articulation of a very general theory of community dynamics: species are added to communities via speciation and dispersal, and the relative abundances of these species are then shaped by drift and selection, as well as ongoing dispersal to drive community dynamics."
480	Venable2007.pdf	"Venable, L.D. 2007. Bet hedging in a guild of desert annuals reports. Ecology 88:1086-1090"	5	"Evolutionary bet hedging encapsulates the counterintuitive idea that organisms evolve traits that reduce short-term reproductive success in favor of longer-term risk reduction. It has been widely investigated theoretically, and many putative examples have been cited including practical ones such as the dormancy involved in microbe and weed persistence. However, long-term data on demographic variation from the actual evolutionarily relevant environments have been unavailable to test for its mechanistic relationship to alleged bet hedging traits. I report an association between delayed germination (a bet hedging trait) and risk using a 22-year data set on demographic variation for 10 species of desert annual plants. Species with greater variation in reproductive success (per capita survival from germination to reproduction 3 per capita fecundity of survivors) were found to have lower average germination fractions. This provides a definitive test using realistic data on demographic variance that confirms the life history prediction for bet hedging. I also showed that the species with greater long-term demographic variation tended to be the ones with greater sensitivity of reproductive success to variation among years in growing-season precipitation."
481	Vernadsky1945.pdf	"Vernadsky, W.I. 1945. The biosphere and the no�sphere. American Scientist 33:787-798"	0	"The followiog article is composed of an introductory ebstract of a paper completed in 1938, and recendy published in translation in the Transactions of the'Cmnecticut Academy of Scicnces (vol. 35, pp. 481-517), under the editorship of Professor G. E. Hutchinson, and a oew essan written in 1943 and translatcd from the Russian manuscript by Dr. C'eorge Vernadsky of Yale University. The two conuibutions together present the general intcllecnral oudook of one of the most remarkable scieatific leaders of the pres  ��nt ceotury. The translation of the quotation un&r the frontispiece (from a letter to Professor A. Petrunkevitch) is as follows: I look forward with great optimism. I think that'we undergo not only an historical, but a planetary change as well. lVe live in a transition to the noiispbere. Cordial $eetings, W. Verna&ky. Tbe tablc, rcproduced in abstract below, that forms the main. feature of thc earlier paper, calls atteotion to many propcrties of living bodies that appcar.so elementary that they are in danger of oeglect. It is an instructive experiencc to go through the table applying the criteria to. the crystallizable viruses, the naturc of whicb was tot apparent when tlle eadier paper was wnnen.-Editor."
482	Violle2007.pdf	"Violle, C. et al. 2007. Let the concept of trait be functional! Oikos 116:882-892"	11	"In its simplest definition, a trait is a surrogate of organismal performance, and this meaning of the term has been used by evolutionists for a long time. Over the last three decades, developments in community and ecosystem ecology have forced the concept of trait beyond these original boundaries, and trait-based approaches are now widely used in studies ranging from the level of organisms to that of ecosystems. Despite some attempts to fix the terminology, especially in plant ecology, there is currently a high degree of confusion in the use, not only of the term  trait  itself, but also in the underlying concepts it refers to. We therefore give an unambiguous definition of plant trait, with a particular emphasis on functional trait. A hierarchical perspective is proposed, extending the  performance paradigm  to plant ecology.  Functional traits  are defined as morpho-physio-phenological traits which impact fitness indirectly via their effects on growth, reproduction and survival, the three components of individual performance. We finally present an integrative framework explaining how changes in trait values due to environmental variations are translated into organismal performance, and how these changes may influence processes at higher organizational levels. We argue that this can be achieved by developing  integration functions  which can be grouped into functional response (community level) and effect (ecosystem level) algorithms."
483	Vitousek1975.pdf	"Vitousek, P. M.; Reiners W.A. 1975. Ecosystem succession and nutrient retention: a hypothesis. BioScience 25:376-381"	6	"A hypothesis is presented for the regulation of elemental losses from terrestrial ecosystems. Losses of elements are controlled by the net increment of biomass growth and the elemental composition of this net increment. According to this hypothesis, loss rates are highest in early succession and in steady state ecosystems."
484	Vitousek1997a.pdf	"Vitousek, P.M. et al. 1997a. Human Alteration of the Global Nitrogen Cycle: Sources and Consequences. Ecological Applications 7:737"	1	"Nitrogen is a key element controlling the species composition, diversity, dynamics, and functioning of many terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Many of the original plant species living in these ecosystems are adapted to, and function optimally in, soils and solutions with low levels of available nitrogen. The growth and dynamics of herbivore populations, and ultimately those of their predators, also are affected by N. Agriculture, combustion of fossil fuels, and other human activities have altered the global cycle of N substantially, generally increasing both the availability and the mobility of N over large regions of Earth. The mobility of N means that while most deliberate applications of N occur locally, their influence spreads regionally and even globally, Moreover, many of the mobile forms of N themselves have environmental consequences. Although most nitrogen inputs serve human needs such as agricultural production, their environmental consequences are serious and long term. Based on our review of available scientific evidence, we are certain that human alterations of the nitrogen cycle have: 1) approximately doubled the rate of nitrogen input into the terrestrial nitrogen cycle, with these rates still increasing; 2) increased concentrations of the potent greenhouse gas N2O globally, and increased concentrations of other oxides of nitrogen that drive the formation of photochemical smog over large regions of Earth; 3) caused losses of soil nutrients, such as calcium and potassium, that are essential for the long-term maintenance of soil fertility; 4) contributed substantially to the acidification of soils, streams, and lakes in several regions; and 5) greatly increased the transfer of nitrogen through rivers to estuaries and coastal oceans. In addition, based on our review of available scientific evidence we are confident that human alterations of the nitrogen cycle have: 6) increased the quantity of organic carbon stored within terrestrial ecosystems; 7) accelerated losses of biological diversity, especially losses of plants adapted to efficient use of nitrogen, and losses of the animals and microorganisms that depend on them; and 8) caused changes in the composition and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems, and contributed to long-term declines in coastal marine fisheries."
485	Vitousek1997.pdf	"Vitousek, P.M. et al. 1997b. Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems. Science 277:494-499"	6	"Human alteration of Earth is substantial and growing. Between one-third and one-half of the land surface has been transformed by human action; the carbon dioxide con-centration in the atmosphere has increased by nearly 30 percent since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution; more atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by humanity than by all natural terrestrial sources combined; more than half of all accessible surface fresh water is put to use by humanity; and about one-quarter of the bird species on Earth have been driven to extinction. By these and other standards, it is clear that we live on a human-dominated planet."
486	Vitousek1991.pdf	"Vitousek, P.M.; Howarth, R.W. 1991. Nitrogen Limitation on Land and in the Sea : How Can It Occur ? Biogeochemistry 13:87-115"	29	"The widespread occurrence of nitrogen limitation to net primary production in terrestrial and marine ecosystems is something of a puzzle; it would seem that nitrogen fixers should have a substantial competitive advantage wherever nitrogen is limiting, and that their activity in turn should reverse limitation. Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence that nitrogen limits net primary production much of the time in most terrestrial biomes and many marine ecosystems. We examine both how the biogeochemistry of the nitrogen cycle could cause limitation to develop, and how nitrogen limitation could persist as a consequence of processes that prevent or reduce nitrogen fixation. Biogeochemical mechansism that favor nitrogen limita- tion include: - the substantial mobility of nitrogen across ecosystem boundaries, which favors nitogen limitation in the ""source"" ecosystem - especially where denitrification is important in sediments and soils, or in terrestrial ecosystems where fire is frequent; - differences in the biochemistry of nitrogen as opposed to phosphorus (with detrital N mostly carbon-bonded and detrital P mostly ester-bonded), which favor the develop- ment of nitrogen limitation where decomposition is slow, and allow the development of a positive feedback from nitrogen limitation to producers, to reduced decomposition of their detritus, and on to reduced nitrogen availability; and - other more specialized, but perhaps no less important, processes. A number of mechanisms could keep nitrogen fixation from reversing nitrogen limitation. These include: - energetic constraints on the colonization or activity of nitrogen fixers; - limitation of nitrogen fixers or fixation by another nutrient (phosphorus, molybdenum, or iron) - which would then represent the ultimate factor limiting net primary production; - other physical and ecological mechanisms. The possible importance of these and other processes is discussed for a wide range of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems"
487	Vitousek1994.pdf	"Vitousek, P.M. 1994. Beyond global warming: ecology and global change. Ecology 75:1861-1876"	16	"While ecologists involved in management or policy often are advised to learn to deal with uncertainty, there are a number of components of global environmental change of which we are certain -certain that they are going on, and certain that they are human-caused. Some of these are largely ecological changes, and all have important ecological consequences. Three of the well-documented global changes are: increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; alteration in the biogeochemistry of the global nitrogen cycle; and ongoing land use/land cover change. Human activity -now primarily fossil fuel combustion- has increased carbon dioxide concentrations from   �_280 to 355   �L/L since 1800; the increase is unique, at least in the past 160 000 yr, and severa lines of evidence demonstrate unequivocally that it is human-caused. This increase is likely to have climatic consequences -and certainlt it has direct effects on biota in all Earth's terrestrial ecosystems. The global nitrogen cycle has been altered by human activity to such an extent that more introgen is fixed annually by humanity (primarily for nitrogen fertilizer, also by legume crops and as a byproduct of fossil fuel combustion) than by all natural pathways combined. This added nitrogenalters the chamistry of the atmosphere and of aquatic ecosystems, contributes to eutrophication of the biosphere, and has substantial regional effect on biological diversity in the most affected areas. Finally, human land use/land cover change has transformed one-third to one-half of Earth's ice-free surface. This is and of itself probably represents the most important component of global change now and will for some decades to come; it has profound effects on biological diversity on land and on ecosystems downwind and downstream of affected area. Overall, any clear dichotomy between pristine ecosystems and human-altered areas that may have existed in the past has vanished, and ecological research should account for this reality. These three and other equally certain components of global environmental change are the primary causes of anticipated changes in climate, and of ongoing losses of biological diversity. They are caused in turn by the extraordinary growth in size and resource use of the human population. On a broad scale, there is little uncertainty about any of these components of change or their causes. However, much of the public believes the causes -even the existence- of global change to be uncertain and contentious topics. By speaking out effectively, we can help to shift the focus of public discussion towards what can and should be done about environmental change."
488	Volkov2003.pdf	"Volkov, I. et al. 2003. Neutral theory and relative species abundance in ecology. Nature 424:1035-1037"	3	"The theory of island biogeography asserts that an island or a local community approaches an equilibrium species richness as a result of the interplay between the immigration of species from the much larger metacommunity source area and local extinction of species on the island (local community). Hubbell generalized this neutral theory to explore the expected steady-state distribution of relative species abundance (RSA) in the local community under restricted immigration. Here we present a theoretical framework for the unified neutral theory of biodiversity and an analytical solution for the distribution of the RSA both in the metacommunity (Fisher's log series) and in the local community, where there are fewer rare species. Rare species are more extinction-prone, and once they go locally extinct, they take longer to re-immigrate than do common species. Contrary to recent assertions, we show that the analytical solution provides a better fit, with fewer free parameters, to the RSA distribution of tree species on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, than the lognormal distribution."
489	Wade1990.pdf	"Wade, M.J.; Susan K. 1990. The causes of natural selection. Evolution 44:1947-1955"	9	"We discuss the necessary and sufficient conditions for identifying the cause of natural selection on a phenotypic trait. We reexamine the observational methods recently proposed for measuring selection in natural populations and illustrate why the multivariate analysis of selection is insufficient for identifying the causal agents of selection. We discuss how the observational approach of multivariate selection analysis can be complemented by experimental manipulations of the phenotypic distribution and the environment to identify not only how selection is operating on the phenotypic distribution but also why it operates in the observed manner. A significant point of departure of our work from recent discussions is in regard to the role of the environment in the study of natural selection. Instead of viewing the environment as a source of unwanted variation that obscures the relationship between phenotype and fitness, we view fitness as arising from the interaction of the phenotype with the environment. The biotic and abiotic environment is the context that gives rise to the relationship between phenotype and fitness (selection). The analysis of the causes of selection is in essence a problem in ecology. The experimental study of the association between selection gradients and environmental characteristics is necessary to identify the agents of natural selection. We recommend research methods for identifying the agency of selection that depend upon a reciprocity between the observational approach of multivariate selection analysis and the manipulative approach of field experiments in evolutionary ecology."
490	Wardle2004.pdf	"Wardle, D. et al. 2004. Ecological linkages between aboveground and belowground biota. Science 304:1629-1633"	5	"All terrestrial ecosystems consist of aboveground and belowground components that interact to influence community- and ecosystem-level processes and properties. Here we show how these components are closely interlinked at the community level, reinforced by a greater degree of specificity between plants and soil organisms than has been previously supposed. As such, aboveground and belowground communities can be powerful mutual drivers, with both positive and negative feedbacks. A combined aboveground-belowground approach to community and ecosystem ecology is enhancing our understanding of the regulation and functional significance of biodiversity and of the environmental impacts of human-induced global change phenomena."
491	Wardle2011.pdf	"Wardle, D. et al. 2011. Terrestrial ecosystem responses to species gains and losses. Science 332:1273-1278"	6	"Ecosystems worldwide are losing some species and gaining others, resulting in an interchange of species that is having profound impacts on how these ecosystems function. However, research on the effects of species gains and losses has developed largely independently of one another. Recent conceptual advances regarding effects of species gain have arisen from studies that have unraveled the mechanistic basis of how invading species with novel traits alter biotic interactions and ecosystem processes. In contrast, studies on traits associated with species loss are fewer, and much remains unknown about how traits that predispose species to extinction affect ecological processes. Species gains and losses are both consequences and drivers of global change; thus, explicit integration of research on how both processes simultaneously affect ecosystem functioning is key to determining the response of the Earth system to current and future human activities."
492	Watt1947.pdf	"Watt, A.S. 1947. Pattern and process in the plant community. The Journal of Ecology 53:44562"	1	No Abstract
493	Watts1998.pdf	"Watts, D.J.; Strogatz, S.H. 1998. Collective dynamics of 'small-world' networks. Nature 393:440-442"	3	"Networks of coupled dynamical systems have been used to model biological oscillators, Josephson junction arrays, excitable media, neural networks, spatial games, genetic control networks and many other self-organizing systems. Ordinarily, the connection topology is assumed to be either completely regular or completely random. But many biological, technological and social networks lie somewhere between these two extremes. Here we explore simple models of networks that can be tuned through this middle ground: regular networks 'rewired' to introduce increasing amounts of disorder. We find that these systems can be highly clustered, like regular lattices, yet have small characteristic path lengths, like random graphs. We call them 'small-world' networks, by analogy with the small-world phenomenon (popularly known as six degrees of separation. The neural network of the worm Caenorhabditis elegans, the power grid of the western United States, and the collaboration graph of film actors are shown to be small-world networks. Models of dynamical systems with small-world coupling display enhanced signal-propagation speed, computational power, and synchronizability. In particular, infectious diseases spread more easily in small-world networks than in regular lattices."
494	Weatherhead1986.pdf	"Weatherhead, P.J. 1986. How unusual are unusual events? The American Naturalist 128:526-543"	18	No Abstract
495	Weaver1948.pdf	"Weaver, W. 1948. Science and complexity. American Scientist 36:536-544"	9	"SCIENCE has led to a multitude of results that affect men's lives. Some of these results are embodied in mere conveniences of a relatively trivial sort. Many of them, based on science and developed through technology, are essential to the machinery of modern life. Many other results, especially those associated with the biological and medical sciences, are of unquestioned benefit and comfort. Certain aspects of science have profoundly influenced men's ideas and even their ideals. Still other aspects of science are thoroughly awesome. How can we get a view of the function that science should have in the developing future 0f man, flow can we appreciate what science really is and, equally important, what science is not? It is, of course, possible to discuss the nature of science in general philosophical terms. For some purposes such a discussion is important and necessary, but for the present a more direct approach is desirable. Let us, a very realistic politician used to say, let us look at the record. Neglecting the older history of science, we shall go back only three and a half centuries and take a broad view that tries to see the main features, and omits minor details. Let us begin with the physical sciences, rather than the biological, for the place of the life sciences in the descriptive scheme will gradually become evident."
496	Webb2002.pdf	"Webb, C.O. et al. 2002. Phylogenies and community ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33:475�505"	31	"As better phylogenetic hypotheses become available for many groups of organisms, studies in community ecology can be informed by knowledge of the evo- lutionary relationships among coexisting species. We note three primary approaches to integrating phylogenetic information into studies of community organization: 1. examining the phylogenetic structure of community assemblages, 2. exploring the phylogenetic basis of community niche structure, and 3. adding a community context to studies of trait evolution and biogeography. We recognize a common pattern of phylogenetic conservatism in ecological character and highlight the challenges of using phylogenies of partial lineages. We also review phylogenetic approaches to three emergent properties of communities: species diversity, relative abundance distributions, and range sizes. Methodological advances in phylogenetic supertree construction, character reconstruction, null models for community assembly and character evolution, and metrics of community phylogenetic structure underlie the recent progress in these ar- eas. We highlight the potential for community ecologists to benefit from phylogenetic knowledge and suggest several avenues for future research."
497	Weiner1992.pdf	"Weiner, J. 1992. Physiological limits to Energy Budgets Sustainable in Birds and Mammals : Ecological Implications. Science 7:384-388"	5	"An approach alternative to the conventional regression analysis of two-dimensional distribution of mammalian body sizes and metabolic rates is proposed. It is hypothetized that the actual species-specific energy budgets fill the space between physiological constraints functionally related to body mass. The allometric correlation between energy budgets and body mass is a side effect of this pattern. An attempt was made to identify and quantify the relevant constraining functions. The following allometric regressions, based on numerous literature data, were computed: minimum metabolism in hibernation Mmin = 0.246 10-3 W0.879; maximum aerobic metabolism Mmax = 0.101 W0.857; maximum non-shivering thermogenesis NSTmax = 0.112 W0.653; maximum total heat production HPmax = 0.168 W0.676; maximum rate of energy assimilation from food Amax = 0.214 W0.664; all metabolic rates in Watt, body mass (W) in grams. The theoretical scaling powers are 2/3 (surface) and 1 (mass). Thus, Mmin and Mmax seem to be limited by processes directly proportional to body mass, whereas other constraining functions depend on surface areas of morphological structures, e.g. surface area of the gut in the case of Amax. The field energy budgets of mammals fit within these constraints but closely approach the limit for Amax. Man avoided the physiological constraint of individual energy budget exploiting energy sources from outside the alimentary tract."
498	Weissgerber2015.pdf	"Weissgerber, T.L. et al. 2015. Beyond Bar and Line Graphs: Time for a New Data Presentation Paradigm. PLOS Biology 13:e1002128"	1	"Figures in scientific publications are critically important because they often show the data supporting key findings. Our systematic review of research articles published in top physiol-ogy journals (n = 703) suggests that, as scientists, we urgently need to change our practices for presenting continuous data in small sample size studies. Papers rarely included scatter-plots, box plots, and histograms that allow readers to critically evaluate continuous data. Most papers presented continuous data in bar and line graphs. This is problematic, as many different data distributions can lead to the same bar or line graph. The full data may suggest different conclusions from the summary statistics. We recommend training investi-gators in data presentation, encouraging a more complete presentation of data, and chang-ing journal editorial policies. Investigators can quickly make univariate scatterplots for small sample size studies using our Excel templates."
499	Werner1984.pdf	Werner E.E.; Gilliam J.F. 1984. The ontogenetic niche and species interactions in size-structured poplations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 15:393-425	33	Documents the widespread existence of ontogenetic shifts in diet and habitat and explores the consequences of such shifts for species interactions and community structure. Most examples are from the lower vertebrates and invertebrates in freshwater communities. The second part offers a conceptual framework for predicting ontogenic shifts and suggests preliminary approaches for exploring their ecological and evolutionary consequences. It is shown how such life histories may be incorporated into a population dynamics framework
500	Werner1993.pdf	"Werner, E.E.; Anholt, B.R. 1993. Ecological consequences of the trade-off between growth and mortality rates mediated by foraging activity. American Naturalist 142:242-272"	31	"-Animals are frequently faced with trade-offs created by the fact that both resource acquisition and risk of mortality increase with activity, for example, with foraging speed or time spent foraging. We develop models predicting adaptive responses for both foraging speed and proportion of time active when individual growth rate and mortality risk are functions of these variables. Using the criterion that animals should minimize the ratio of mortality to growth rates, we show that, when both growth and mortality rates are linear with activity levels, the latter should be either maximal or minimal depending on resource level. If growth rate is a decelerating function of activity, then speed or time active should decrease with increases in resources, handling time, or the effect of activity on mortality rate. By contrast, if mortality rate unrelated to activity increases, then activity rate also should increase. We also develop predictions for cases in which time horizon is critical using a dynamic programming framework. The general patterns of predicted activity responses are similar to the time-invariant analytical solutions, but foraging speed is reduced relative to the analytical solutions when time remaining is long or when accumulated reserves are high. This effect is ameliorated when accumulated reserves (size) increase resource capture efficiency or reduce mortality risk. If resources decline with time (e.g., because of competition) optimal foraging speeds are also higher than predicted by the analytical solutions. We discuss the relation of our predictions to previous models and the available empirical evidence. The majority of available data appear to be consistent with our models, and in some cases quantitative comparisons are quite close. Finally, we discuss the implications of our results for ontogenetic changes in behavior and for population-and community-level phenomena, particularly the role of activity responses in competitive interac-tions and indirect effects and patterns of coexistence among competitors. A hallmark of the modern behavioral ecology program is the attempt to under-stand how animals make decisions under conflicting demands or, alternatively, to understand how patterns in species behavior reflect the resolution of such trade-offs in evolutionary terms. This article concerns the consequences of trade-offs in growth and mortality rates mediated through rates of activity while forag-ing. The ubiquity and importance of the trade-off is simply stated. Searching for and harvesting resources requires movement for most animals. Movement, however, usually increases encounter rates with or detection by predators. These relationships lead to a fundamental trade-off between growth rate and risk of t Present address:"
501	West1997.pdf	"West, G.B. et al. 1997. A General Model for the Origin of Allometric Scaling Laws in Biology. Science 276:122-126"	5	"Allometric scaling relations, including the 3/4 power law for metabolic rates, are characteristic of all organisms and are here derived from a general model that describes how essential materials are transported through space-filling fractal networks of branching tubes. The model assumes that the energy dissipated is minimized and that the terminal tubes do not vary with body size. It provides a complete analysis of scaling relations for mammalian circulatory systems that are in agreement with data. More generally, the model predicts structural and functional properties of vertebrate cardiovascular and respiratory systems, plant vascular systems, insect tracheal tubes, and other distribution networks."
502	Westoby2006.pdf	"Westoby, M.; Wright, I.J. 2006. Land-plant ecology on the basis of functional traits. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 21:261-268"	8	"The tissue traits and architectures of plant species are important for land-plant ecology in two ways. First, they control ecosystem processes and define habitat and resources for other taxa; thus, they are a high priority for understanding the ecosystem at a site. Second, know- ledge of trait costs and benefits offers the most promising path to understanding how vegetation properties change along physical geography gradients. There exists an informal shortlist of plant traits that are thought to be most informative. Here, we summarize recent research on correlations and tradeoffs surround- ing some traits that are prospects for the shortlist. By extending the list and by developing better models for how traits influence species distributions and interact- ions, a strong foundation of basic ecology can be established, with many practical applications."
503	White2008.pdf	"White, T.C.R. 2008. The role of food, weather and climate in limiting the abundance of animals. Biological Reviews 83:227-248"	22	"More and more studies are demonstrating that populations of animals - from herbivores to top predators, vertebrates and invertebrates - are limited by their food, and that the availability of this food is dictated by the weather. Satellite monitoring is revealing how cyclic and quasi-cyclic climatic patterns, like the El Ni  �o Southern Oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation, are driving and synchronising these weather-driven changes in the supplies of food. Changes in the amount of food available operate to limit the abundance of populations largely through their influence on the survival of the very young: the Achilles heel of all populations. Any individual organism struggles to use whatever resources it can get from a mostly inhospitable environment to maximise the proliferation of its genes. Each level of a food chain is thus dependent upon, and pressing hard against the limits set by the one below. The resulting intra- and inter-specific interactions produce a multitude of complex outcomes, that significantly influence the dynamics of populations, but do not determine their ultimate size. There is no density-dependent regulation of abundance. Intra-specific competition does not determine the size of populations, it only decides which few individuals gain access to the limited food. Nor do predators regulate their prey. They, too, are limited by their food, and the abundance and quality of food is dictated by the weather."
504	Whittaker1956.pdf	"Whittaker, R.H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains. Ecological Monographs 26:1-80"	80	No Abstract
505	Whittaker1972.pdf	"Whittaker, R.H. 1972. Evolution and measurement of species diversity. Taxon 21:213-251"	39	"Given a resource gradient (e.g. light intensity, prey size) in a community, species evolve to use different parts of this gradient; competition between them is thereby reduced. Species relationships in the community may be conceived in terms of a multidimensional coordinate system, the axes of which are the various resource gradients (and other aspects of species relationships to space, time, and one another in the community). This coordinate system defines a hyperspace, and the range of the space that a given species occupies is its niche hypervolume, as an abstract characterization of its intra-community position, or niche. Species evolve toward difference in niche, and consequently toward difference in location of their hypervolumes in the niche hyperspace. Through evolutionary time addi- tional species can fit into the community in niche hypervolumes different from those of other species, and the niche hyperspace can become increasingly complex. Its complexity relates to the community's richness in species, its alpha diversity. Species differ in the proportions of the niche hyperspace they are able to occupy and the share of the community's resources they utilize. The share of resources utilized is expressed in species' productivities, and when species are ranked by relative productivity (or some other measurement) from most to least important, importance-value or domi- nance-diversity curves are formed. Three types of curves may represent manners in which resources are divided among species: (a) niche pre-emption with strong dominance, expressed in a geometric series, (b) random boundaries between niches, expressed in the MacArthur distribution, and (c) determination of relative importance by many factors, so that species form a frequency distribution on a logarithmic base of importance values, a lognormal distribution. The forms of importance-value curves do not permit strong infer- ence about resource division, but are of interest for their expression of species relation- ships and bearing on measurement of diversity. Two aspects of alpha diversity are to be measured. Diversity in the strict sense is richness in species, and is appropriately measured as the number of species in a sample of standard size. Slope measurements, in contrast, express the steepness of the importance- value sequence. Of the slope measurements the Simpson index expresses dominance or relative concentration of the importance values into the first or first few species, whereas the Shannon-Wiener index expresses the relative evenness or equitability of the importance values through the whole sequence. A new index, expressing equitability as number of species per logarithmic cycle of the importance-value sequence, is suggested. Given a habitat gradient (e.g. elevation or soil moisture conditions) species evolve to occupy different positions along this gradient. The various habitat gradients of a landscape may also be conceived as a multidimensional hyperspace, and species evolve toward occupa- tion of different positions in this hyperspace. Along a particular habitat gradient species populations have scattered centers and usually overlap broadly, forming a community continuum or coenocline. Through evolutionary time additional species can fit themselves in along the coenocline. As they do so the extent of change in community composition along the gradient increases. The extent of differentiation of communities along habitat gradients is beta diversity. The total or gamma diversity of a landscape, or geographic area, is a product of the alpha diversity of its communities and the degree of beta differentiation among them. The species' position in a landscape of communities, as described in terms of both habitat and niche relationships, may be termed its ecotope. Two approaches to measuring beta diversity have been most useful. For a transect along a given coenocline, the degree of species turnover or compositional change may be measured through sample similarities and expressed as half-changes. When a set of samples are taken to represent differences in communities of a landscape or range of habitat along more than one habitat axis, beta differentiation for these samples may be expressed by the ratio of the total number of species represented in the samples to the mean number per sample. Diversity of communities seems a resultant of non-extreme conditions, stable condi- tions, evolutionary and successional time, and the kind of community developed in that time. It is difficult to separate the effects of chronic environmental rigor, amplitude of regular fluctuation, and irregularity or unpredictableness of fluctuation. Diversities are low in many unstable environments, but certain desert communities subject to wide and irregular variation in precipitation have evolved high diversities in relation to this varia- tion. Evolutionary time is difficult to measure, but is important as the dimension through which increase in alpha and beta diversity occurs. Alpha diversities of birds, and gamma diverstities of islands, appear to reach saturation or steady-state levels. It is suggested, however, that for terrestrial plants and insects increase of species diversity, with elabora- tion of the niche hyperspace and division of the habitat hyperspace, is a self-augmenting evolutionary process without any evident limit."
506	Wiens1976.pdf	"Wiens, J.A. 1976. Population responses to patchy environments. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 7:81-120"	40	"Human-induced environmental changes differ from most natural changes in which they happen at a faster rate and require quicker responses from populations. The first response of populations is usually phenotypically plastic alterations of morphology, physiology and behaviour. This plasticity can be favourable and move the population closer to an adaptive peak in the altered environment and, hence, maintain a viable population, or be maladaptive and move the population further from the peak and increase the risk of extinction. The radiation of the three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus from the ocean to different freshwater habitats has provided much information on adaptation to new environmental conditions. Currently, human-induced eutrophication is changing the breeding areas of these fish, which creates a model system for investigation of responses to rapid environmental disturbance. Results show that a primary reaction is plastic alterations of behaviour, with some adjustments being adaptive while others are not. At the same time, the strength of sexual selection on several traits is relaxed, which could increase the relative importance of survival selection. Whether this will restore population viability depends on the amount of standing genetic variation in the right direction. Human disturbances can be dramatic and resolution of the limit of flexibility and the possibility of genetic adaptation should be important targets of future research."
507	Wiens1989.pdf	"Wiens, J.A. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Functional ecology 3:385-397"	13	"My thesis in this paper is that scaling issues are fundamental to all ecological investigations, as they are in other sciences. My comments are focused on spatial scaling, but similar arguments may be made about scaling in time."
508	Wiens2004.pdf	"Wiens, J.J.; Donoghue, M.J. 2004. Historical biogeography, ecology and species richness. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19:639-44"	6	"Ecology and historical (phylogeny-based) biogeography have much to offer one another, but exchanges between these fields have been limited. Historical biogeography has become narrowly focused on using phylogenies to discover the history of geological connections among regions. Conversely, ecologists often ignore historical biogeography, even when its input can be crucial. Both historical biogeographers and ecologists have more-or-less abandoned attempts to understand the processes that determine the large-scale distribution of clades. Here, we describe the chasm that has developed between ecology and historical biogeography, some of the important questions that have fallen into it and how it might be bridged. To illustrate the benefits of an integrated approach, we expand on a model that can help explain the latitudinal gradient of species richness."
509	Wilbur1997.pdf	"Wilbur, H.M. 1997. Experimental ecology of food webs: complex systems in temporary ponds. Ecology 78:2279-2302"	24	"A food web graphically represents the paths of nutrients and energy through the living components of an ecosystem and the context in which individuals exploit their prey and avoid their enemies. Temporary ponds are excellent arenas for the study of food webs because they are discrete communities that can be mimicked in containers that approach the realism of natural habitats. Artificial ponds permit repeatable initial conditions and sufficient replication of independent experimental units in complex experiments to test hypotheses about the control of structure and function in natural communities. I used a combination of observations of natural ponds, ""experimental natural history"" of artificial ponds in my study area, and controlled experiments in an array of 144 replicate ponds to develop, then test, hypotheses about how the structures of food webs are regulated. Understanding food webs begins with population biology. Amphibians use the aquatic larval stage of their biphasic life cycle to exploit ephemeral opportunities for growth and development in temporary ponds. The regulation of population density and the fitness of individuals are determined by complex interactions among competition, predation, and uncertainty in the length of the time ponds retain water. Exponential models of density-dependent recruitment relate the number of metamorphs to the input of eggs into ponds without predators. Extensions of these models include interspecific competition and predation. The addition of predation to these systems has three effects. (1) Predators can reduce, even eliminate, prey. There are species-specific differences among co-occurring prey in their risks of predation, and these risks change with relative body sizes of predator and prey. (2) Individuals may evoke an inducible defense that reduces their risk by either decreasing active foraging or developing morphological adaptations, such as changes in the coloration and shape of tails. These defenses may entail costs in body size and timing of metamorphosis. (3) Finally, mortality due to predators may reduce competition, thereby benefiting the population of the prey by permitting individuals that escape predation to grow rapidly enough to escape drying ponds. The order of arrival of species at breeding ponds has an impact on their own success as well as having a lasting impact on the success of species that arrive later. Such priority effects may result from size-specific changes in trophic connections or indirect effects between species mediated through the food web. Anurans can have strong effects on the partitioning of the flow of nutrients through the phytoplankton vs. the periphyton. This effect on partitioning of production can then have strong effects on zooplankton and insects. Salamanders can play the role of keystone, or critical, predators by affecting the structure of the assemblages of zooplankton and anurans that determine much of the dynamics of nutrient flows within food webs in temporary ponds."
510	Wilder2015.pdf	"Wilder, S.M.; Raubenheimer, D.; Simpson, S.J. 2015. Moving Beyond Body Condition Indices as an Estimate of Fitness in Ecological and Evolutionary Studies. Functional Ecology doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12460"	0	"Body condition indices, measures of body �plumpness� or mass relative to frame size, are often used as a proxy for lipid reserves or fitness-related traits of animals and assumed to be positively related to fitness.The quantification and analysis of body condition indices has been the subject of debate for decades. Here we summarize three additional concerns with the use of body condition indices..First, body condition index is often poorly correlated with lipid content in animals. Second, even if body condition index and lipid content are correlated, lipid content of an animal may not be the most important aspect of body composition influencing fitness. Finally, neither body condition index nor lipid reserves are likely to be directly positively related to fitness in animals, as many animals homeostatically regulate intermediate levels of condition index or lipid reserves, with both higher and lower values incurring fitness costs..A wide range of analytical methods, including some relatively inexpensive and simple measures, are available for more detailed measures of animal body composition or fitness-related traits. Replacing body condition indices with more direct measures of body composition - even relatively simple measures - can inform understanding of the physiological mechanisms underlying animal responses in a wide range of behavioral, ecological and evolutionary studies."
511	Williams1957.pdf	"Williams, G.C. 1957. Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence. Evolution 11:398�411"	14	No Abstract
512	Williams2007.pdf	"Williams, J.W.; Jackson, S.T. 2007. Novel climates, no-analog communities, and ecological surprises. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5:475-482"	8	"No-analog communities (communities that are compositionally unlike any found today) occurred frequently in the past and will develop in the greenhouse world of the future. The well documented no-analog plant communities of late-glacial North America are closely linked to ""novel"" climates also lacking modem analogs, characterized by high seasonality of temperature. In climate simulations for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change A2 and 131 emission scenarios, novel climates arise by 2100 AD, primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. These future novel climates are warmer than any present climates globally, with spatially variable shifts in precipitation, and increase the risk of species reshuffling into future no-analog communities and other ecological surprises. Most ecological models are at least partially parameterized from modem observations and so may fail to accurately predict ecological responses to these novel climates. There is an urgent need to test the robustness of ecological models to climate conditions outside modem experience"
513	Wilson1975.pdf	"Wilson, D.S. 1975. A theory of group selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 72:143-146"	4	"In organisms possessing a dispersal phase the processes of mating, competition, feeding, and predation are often carried out within ""trait-groups,"" defined as populations enclosed in areas smaller than the boundaries of the deme. A simple model shows that this can lead to the selection of ""altruistic"" traits that favor the fitness of the group over that of the individual. The extent of group selection that occurs depends mainly on the variation in the composition of genotypes between trait-groups. The traditional concepts of group and individual selection are seen as two extremes of a continuum, with systems in nature operating over the interval in between."
514	Wolf1998.pdf	"Wolf, J.B. et al. 1998. Evolutionary consequences of indirect genetic effects. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13:64-69"	6	"Indirect genetic effects (IGEs) are environmental influences on the phenotype of one individual that are due to the expression of genes in a different, conspecific, individual. Historically, work has focused on the influence of parents on offspring but recent advances have extended this perspective to interactions among other relatives and even unrelated individuals. IGEs lead to complicated pathways of inheritance, where environmental sources of variation can be transmitted across generations and therefore contribute to evolutionary change. The existence of IGEs alters the genotype-phenotype relationship, changing the evolutionary process in some dramatic and non-intuitive ways."
515	Worm2009.pdf	"Worm, B. et al. 2009. Rebuilding Global Fisheries. Science 325:578-585"	8	"After a long history of overexploitation, increasing efforts to restore marine ecosystems and rebuild fisheries are under way. Here, we analyze current trends from a fisheries and conservation perspective. In 5 of 10 well-studied ecosystems, the average exploitation rate has recently declined and is now at or below the rate predicted to achieve maximum sustainable yield for seven systems. Yet 63% of assessed fish stocks worldwide still require rebuilding, and even lower exploitation rates are needed to reverse the collapse of vulnerable species. Combined fisheries and conservation objectives can be achieved by merging diverse management actions, including catch restrictions, gear modification, and closed areas, depending on local context. Impacts of international fleets and the lack of alternatives to fishing complicate prospects for rebuilding fisheries in many poorer regions, highlighting the need for a global perspective on rebuilding marine resources."
516	Wright1934.pdf	"Wright, S. 1934. The method of Path Coefficients. The annals of Mathematical Statistics 5:161-215"	55	"The Method of path coefficients was suggested a number of years ago (Wright 1918, more fully 1920, 1921), as a flexible means of relating the correlation coefficients between variables in a multiple system to the functional relations among them. The method has been applied in quite a variety of cases. It seems desirable now to make a restatement of the theory and to review the types of application, especially as there has been a certain amount of misunderstanding both of purpose and of procedure."
517	Wright2004.pdf	"Wright, I.J. et al. 2004. The worldwide leaf economics spectrum. Nature 428:821-827"	7	"Bringing together leaf trait data spanning 2,548 species and 175 sites we describe, for the first time at global scale, a universal spectrum of leaf economics consisting of key chemical, structural and physiological properties. The spectrum runs from quick to slow return on investments of nutrients and dry mass in leaves, and operates largely independently of growth form, plant functional type or biome. Categories along the spectrum would, in general, describe leaf economic variation at the global scale better than plant functional types, because functional types overlap substantially in their leaf traits. Overall, modulation of leaf traits and trait relationships by climate is surprisingly modest, although some striking and significant patterns can be seen. Reliable quantification of the leaf economics spectrum and its interaction with climate will prove valuable for modelling nutrient fluxes and vegetation boundaries under changing land-use and climate."
518	Yachi1999.pdf	"Yachi, S.; Loreau, M. 1999. Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity in a fluctuating environment: The insurance hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 96:1463-1468"	6	"Although the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning has become a major focus in ecology, its significance in a fluctuating environment is still poorly understood. According to the insurance hypothesis, biodiversity insures ecosystems against declines in their functioning because many species provide greater guarantees that some will maintain functioning even if others fail. Here we examine this hypothesis theoretically. We develop a general stochastic dynamic model to assess the effects of species richness on the expected temporal mean and variance of ecosystem processes such as productivity, based on individual species' productivity responses to environmental fluctuations. Our model shows two major insurance effects of species richness on ecosystem productivity: (i) a buffering effect, i.e., a reduction in the temporal variance of productivity, and (ii) a performance-enhancing effect, i.e., an increase in the temporal mean of productivity. The strength of these insurance effects is determined by three factors: (i) the way ecosystem productivity is determined by individual species responses to environmental fluctuations, (ii) the degree of asynchronicity of these responses, and (iii) the detailed form of these responses. In particular, the greater the variance of the species responses, the lower the species richness at which the temporal mean of the ecosystem process saturates and the ecosystem becomes redundant. These results provide a strong theoretical foundation for the insurance hypothesis, which proves to be a fundamental principle for understanding the long-term effects of biodiversity on ecosystem processes."
519	Yoccoz2001.pdf	"Yoccoz, N.G.; Nichols, J.D.; Boulinier, T. 2001. Monitoring of biological diversity in space and time. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 16:446-453"	8	"Monitoring programmes are being used increasingly to assess spatial and temporal trends of biological diversity, with an emphasis on evaluating the efficiency of management policies. Recent reviews of the existing programmes, with a focus on their design in particular, have highlighted the main weaknesses: the lack of well-articulated objectives and the neglect of different sources of error in the estimation of biological diversity. We review recent developments in methods and designs that aim to integrate sources of error to provide unbiased estimates of change in biological diversity and to suggest the potential causes."
520	Yoda1963.tif	"Yoda, K. et al. 1963. Self thinning in overcrowded pure stands under cultivated and natural conditions. Journal of Biology Osaka City Univ 14:107-129"	23	"The process of self-thinning, or the self-adjustment of excess density due to competitive interaction within overcrowded pure stands of higher plants, was analyzed under both cultivated and natural conditions. Trends of time-survival curves in several crop plants were experimentally examined. The results showed that the density of surviving plants at any stage of growth was hyperbolically correlated with the corresponding initial density. There is a maximum asymptotic density at each stage of growth, and the densities beyond this level can not be realized, however high the initial density was, because of the regulation by self-thinning. The asymptotic density is lowered with the progress of growth, sometimes in exponential manner. As the result, the densities in heavily overcrowded plots tend to converge with the lapse of time on the same level, irrespectively of the difference in initial density. This converging density is always higher on less fertilized soil than on fertile soil. The asymptotic density is closely correlated with the size of plants. The asymptotic density is closely correlated with the size of plants. Under the overcrowded condition, plants having a certain average size always maintained a more or less similar level of surviving plant density, regardless of the differences in stand age, initial density and soil fertility level. Field investigations were made with a number of fully crowded pure stands of road-side weeds, under various habitat conditions and in different stages of growth. It was found that the relation between average plant weight (w) and plant density (p ) throughout all such stands of a species could always be formulated by the equation, w=C -3/2, which gives a straight line of the fixed gradient (-3/2) on the log w -log p diagram. This relation, named the 3/2th power law of self-thinning, was commonly recognized in various species including several trees, and was explained based on a simple geometrical model. A field experiment with dense pure stands of Erigeron canadensis revealed that all of the stands, growing from widely different initial densities and on soils of different fertility levels, actually grew along a single curve given by the 3/2th power law"
521	Yoshida2003.pdf	"Yoshida, T. et al. 2003. Rapid evolution drives ecological dynamics in a predator-prey system. Nature 424:303-306"	4	"Ecological and evolutionary dynamics can occur on similar timescales. However, theoretical predictions of how rapid evolution can affect ecological dynamics are inconclusive and often depend on untested model assumptions. Here we report that rapid prey evolution in response to oscillating predator density affects predator-prey (rotifer-algal) cycles in laboratory microcosms. Our experiments tested explicit predictions from a model for our system that allows prey evolution. We verified the predicted existence of an evolutionary tradeoff between algal competitive ability and defence against consumption, and examined its effects on cycle dynamics by manipulating the evolutionary potential of the prey population. Single-clone algal cultures (lacking genetic variability) produced short cycle periods and typical quarter-period phase lags between prey and predator densities, whereas multi-clonal (genetically variable) algal cultures produced long cycles with prey and predator densities nearly out of phase, exactly as predicted. These results confirm that prey evolution can substantially alter predator-prey dynamics, and therefore that attempts to understand population oscillations in nature cannot neglect potential effects from ongoing rapid evolution."
522	Zahavi1975.pdf	"Zahavi, A. 1975. Mate selection-A selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology 53:205-214"	10	"It is suggested that characters which develop through mate preference confer handicaps on the selected individuals in their survival. These handicaps are of use to the selecting sex since they test the quality of the mate. The size of characters selected in this way serve as marks of quality. The understanding that a handicap, which tests for quality, can evolve as a consequence of its advantage to the individual, may provide an explanation for many puzzling evolutionary problems. Such an interpretation may provide an alternative to other hypotheses which assumed complicated selective mechanisms, such as group selection or kin selection, which do not act directly on the individual."
523	Zera2001.pdf	"Zera, A.J.; Harshman, L.G. 2001. The physiology of life history trade-offs in animals. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32:95-126"	32	"The functional causes of life history trade-offs have been a topic of interest to evolutionary biologists for over six decades. Our review of life history trade-offs discuss- es conceptual issues associated with physiological aspects of trade-offs, and it describes recent advances on this topic. We focus on studies of four model systems: wing polymor- phic insects, Drosophila, lizards, and birds. The most signifi cant recent advances have been: (a) incorporation of genetics in physiological studies of trade-offs, (b) integration of investigations of nutrient input with nutrient allocation, (c) development of more sophis- ticated models of resource acquisition and allocation, (d) a shift to more integrated, mul- tidisciplinary studies of intraspecifi c trade-offs, and (e) the fi rst detailed investigations of the endocrine regulation of life history trade-offs."
524	Zinke1962.pdf	"Zinke, P.J. 1962. The Pattern of Influence of Individual Forest Trees on Soil Properties. Ecology 43:130-133"	4	No Abstract
525	Estes1995.pdf	"Estes, J.A.; Duggins, D.O. 1995. Sea Otters and Kelp Forests in Alaska: Generality and Variation in a Community Ecological Paradigm. Ecological Monographs 65:75�100"	26	"Multiscale patterns of spatial and temporal variation in density and population structure were used to evaluate the generality of a three�trophic�level cascade among sea otters (Enhydra lutris), invertebrate herbivores, and macroalgae in Alaska. The paradigm holds that where sea otters occur herbivores are rare and plants are abundant, whereas when sea otters are absent herbivores are relatively common and plants are rare. Spatial patterns were based on 20 randomly placed quadrats at 153 randomly selected sites distributed among five locations with and four locations without sea otters. Both sea urchin and kelp abundance differed significantly among locations with vs. without sea otters in the Aleutian Islands and southeast Alaska. There was little (Aleutian Islands) or no (southeast Alaska) overlap between sites with and without sea otters, in plots of kelp density against urchin biomass. Despite intersite variation in the abundance of kelps and herbivores, these analyses demonstrate that sea otter predation has a predictable and broadly generalizable influence on the structure of Alaskan kelp forests. The percent cover of algal turf and suspension feeder assemblages also differed significantly (although less dramatically) between locations with and without sea otters. Temporal variation in community structure was assessed over periods of from 3 to 15 yr at sites in the Aleutian Islands and southeast Alaska where sea otters were 1) continuously present, 2) continuously absent, or 3) becoming reestablished because of natural range expansion. Kelp and sea urchin abundance remained largely unchanged at most sites where sea otters were continuously present or absent, the one exception being at Torch Bay (southeast Alaska), where kelp abundance varied significantly through time and urchin abundance varied significantly among sites because of episodic and patchy disturbances. In contrast, kelp and sea urchin abundances changed significantly, and in the expected directions, at sites that were being recolonized by sea otters. Sea urchin biomass declined by 50% in the Aleutian Islands and by nearly 100% in southeast Alaska following the spread of sea otters into previously unoccupied habitats. In response to these different rates and magnitudes of urchin reduction by sea otter predation, increases in kelp abundance were abrupt and highly significant in southeast Alaska but much smaller and slower over similar time periods in the Aleutian Islands. The different kelp colonization rates between southeast Alaska and the Aleutian Islands appear to be caused by large�scale differences in echinoid recruitment coupled with size�selective predation by sea otters for larger urchins. The length of urchin jaws (correlated with test diameter, r2 = 0.968) in sea otter scats indicates that sea urchins <15�20 mm test diameter are rarely eaten by foraging sea otters. Sea urchin populations in the Aleutian Islands included high densities of small individuals (<20 mm test diameter) at all sites and during all years sampled, whereas in southeast Alaska similarly sized urchins were absent from most populations during most years. Small (<30�35 mm test diameter) tetracycline�marked urchins in the Aleutian Islands grew at a maximum rate of �10 mm/yr; thus the population must have significant recruitment annually, or at least every several years. In contrast, echinoid recruitment in southeast Alaska was more episodic, with many years to perhaps decades separating significant events. Our findings help explain regional differences in recovery rates of kelp forests following recolonization by sea otters."
526	Dayton1972.pdf	"Dayton, P.K. & Hessler, R.R. 1972. Role of biological disturbance in maintaining diversity in the deep sea. Deep Sea Research 19:199-208"	10	"This paper presents the hypothesis that the maintenance of high species diversity in the deep sea is more a result of continued biological disturbance than of highly specialized competitive niche diversification. Detrital food is the primary resource for most of the deep-sea species, but we suggest that in deposit feeding, most animals would consume available living particles as well as dead. We call this dominant life-style [`]cropping'. Predictable cropping pressure on smaller animals reduces the probability of their competitive exclusion and allows a high overlap in the utilization of food resources. Since cropping pressure is in part proportional to the abundance of the prey, proliferations of individual species are unlikely. Through time many species have accumulated in the deep sea because of speciation and immigration. Extinction rate is low because the biological and physical predictability of the environment has suppressed the possibility of population oscillations. Predictability in food supply for smaller deposit feeders is enhanced by the larger, mobile scavengers which consume and disperse large particles of food which fall to the ocean floor."
527	Legendre2004.pdf	"Legendre, P. et al. 2004. Effects of spatial structures on the results of field experiments. Ecology 85:3202-3214"	13	"Field experiments have been designed to account for spatial structures since the inception of randomized complete block designs by R. A. Fisher. In recent years, our understanding of spatial structures led to refinements in the design and analysis of field experiments in the face of spatial patterning. In the presence of spatial autocorrelation in the response variable, is it possible to optimize the experimental design to maximize the response to the experimental factors? The questions addressed in this paper are: (1) What is the effect of spatial autocorrelation on type I error of the tests of significance commonly used to analyze the results of field experiments? (2) How effectively can we control for the effect of spatial autocorrelation by the design of the experiment? (3) Which experimental designs lead to tests of significance that have greater power? (4) What is the influence of spatial autocorrelation on power of ANOVA tests of significance? This paper attempts to answer these questions through numerical simulations with known spatial autocorrelation. Response variable were simulated to represent the sum of separate effects: (1) an explanatory environmental variable (which could be used as a covariable in the analysis) with a de- terministic structure plus spatial autocorrelation, (2) an effect of the experimental treat- ments, (3) spatial autocorrelation in the response (e.g., biological) variable, and (4) a random error. The program repeatedly generated and analyzed surfaces with given parameters (1000 replicates). The rejection rate of the null hypothesis of no effect of the treatment onto the response variable provided estimates of type I error and power. The simulations showed the following: (1) In the presence of spatial autocorrelation, or if repetitive deterministic structures are present in the variables influencing the response, experimental units should not be positioned at random. (2) ANOVA that takes blocking into account is an efficient way of correcting for deterministic structures or spatial auto- correlation. (3) For constant effort, experimental designs that have more, smaller blocks, broadly spread across the experimental area, lead to tests that have more power in the presence of spatial autocorrelation. (4) Short-ranged spatial autocorrelation affects the pow- er of ANOVA tests more than large-ranged spatial autocorrelation."
528	Paine1969.pdf	"Paine, R.T. 1969. A note on trophic complexity and community stability. The American Naturalist 103:91-93"	3	No Abstract
529	Polis1996a.pdf	"Polis, G.A.; Hurd, S.D. 1996a. Linking marine and terrestrial food webs: Allochthonous input from the ocean supports high secondary productivity on small islands and coastal land communities. The American Naturalist 147:396-423"	28	"This study quantifies the how of energy and biomass from a productive marine system to a relatively unproductive terrestrial system. Biomass from marine food webs (here, the Gulf of California) enters the terrestrial webs of islands and coastal areas through two conduits: (1) shore drift of algal wrack and carrion and (2) colonies of seabirds. Both conduits support dense assemblages of consumers: arthropods are 85-560 times more abundant in the supralittoral than inland and 2.2 times more abundant on islands with seabird colonies than those without. Marine input (MI), not terrestrial primary productivity (TP) by land plants, provides most energy and biomass for terrestrial communities on 16 of 19 study islands. The ratio of perimeter to area (PIA) significantly predicts arthropod abundance on islands and is the major determinant of the relative importance of allochthonous how; we expect PIA ratio to be important wherever transport of nutrients, detritus, and organisms among habitats occurs. Similar transport phenomena generally take place, often with significant impact, on coastal habitats and islands worldwide. Such input subsidizes a diverse array of terrestrial consumers; in many cases, subsidized consumers reach extraordinarily high densities and thus can depress their in situ resources. In general, we propose that such flow is often a key feature of the energetics, structure, and dynamics of populations, food webs, and communities whenever any two habitats, differing in productivity, are juxtaposed."
530	Bagchi2014.pdf	"Bagchi, R. et al. 2014. Pathogens and insect herbivores drive rainforest plant diversity and composition. Nature 506:85�88"	4	"Tropical forests are important reservoirs of biodiversity, but the processes that maintain this diversity remain poorly understood. The Janzen-Connell hypothesis suggests that specialized natural enemies such as insect herbivores and fungal pathogens maintain high diversity by elevating mortality when plant species occur at high density (negative density dependence; NDD). NDD has been detected widely in tropical forests, but the prediction that NDD caused by insects and pathogens has a community-wide role in maintaining tropical plant diversity remains untested. We show experimentally that changes in plant diversity and species composition are caused by fungal pathogens and insect herbivores. Effective plant species richness increased across the seed-to-seedling transition, corresponding to large changes in species composition. Treating seeds and young seedlings with fungicides significantly reduced the diversity of the seedling assemblage, consistent with the Janzen-Connell hypothesis. Although suppressing insect herbivores using insecticides did not alter species diversity, it greatly increased seedling recruitment and caused a marked shift in seedling species composition. Overall, seedling recruitment was significantly reduced at high conspecific seed densities and this NDD was greatest for the species that were most abundant as seeds. Suppressing fungi reduced the negative effects of density on recruitment, confirming that the diversity-enhancing effect of fungi is mediated by NDD. Our study provides an overall test of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis and demonstrates the crucial role that insects and pathogens have both in structuring tropical plant communities and in maintaining their remarkable diversity."
531	He2011.pdf	"He, F. & Hubbell, S.P. 2011. Species�area relationships always overestimate extinction rates from habitat loss. Nature 473:368�371"	4	"Extinction from habitat loss is the signature conservation problem of the twenty-first century. Despite its importance, estimating extinction rates is still highly uncertain because no proven direct methods or reliable data exist for verifying extinctions. The most widely used indirect method is to estimate extinction rates by reversing the species-area accumulation curve, extrapolating backwards to smaller areas to calculate expected species loss. Estimates of extinction rates based on this method are almost always much higher than those actually observed. This discrepancy gave rise to the concept of an 'extinction debt', referring to species 'committed to extinction' owing to habitat loss and reduced population size but not yet extinct during a non-equilibrium period. Here we show that the extinction debt as currently defined is largely a sampling artefact due to an unrecognized difference between the underlying sampling problems when constructing a species-area relationship (SAR) and when extrapolating species extinction from habitat loss. The key mathematical result is that the area required to remove the last individual of a species (extinction) is larger, almost always much larger, than the sample area needed to encounter the first individual of a species, irrespective of species distribution and spatial scale. We illustrate these results with data from a global network of large, mapped forest plots and ranges of passerine bird species in the continental USA; and we show that overestimation can be greater than 160%. Although we conclude that extinctions caused by habitat loss require greater loss of habitat than previously thought, our results must not lead to complacency about extinction due to habitat loss, which is a real and growing threat."
532	Paine1981.PDF	"Paine, R.T. & Levin, S.A. 1981. Intertidal Landscapes: Disturbance and the Dynamics of Pattern. Ecological Monographs 51:145-178"	34	"The mussel Mytilus californianus is a competitive dominant on wave-swept rocky intertidal shores. Mussel beds may exist as extensive monocultures; more often they are an ever- changing mosaic of many species which inhabit wave-generated patches or gaps. This paper describes observations and experiments designed to measure the critical parameters of a model of patch birth and death, and to use the model to predict the spatial structure of mussel beds. Most measurements were made at Tatoosh Island, Washington, USA, from 1970-1979. Patch size ranged at birth from a single mussel to 38 M2; the distribution of patch sizes approxi- mates the lognormal. Birth rates varied seasonally and regionally. At Tatoosh the rate of patch formation varied during six winters from 0.4-5.4% of the mussels removed per month. The disturbance regime during the summer and at two mainland sites was 5-10 times less. Annual disturbance patterns tended to be synchronous within 11 sites on one face of Tatoosh over a 10-yr interval, and over larger distances (16 km) along the coastline. The pattern was asynchronous, however, among four Tatoosh localities. Patch birth rate, and mean and maximum size at birth can be used as adequate indices of disturbance. Patch disappearance (death) occurs by three mechanisms. Very small patches disappear almost immediately due to a leaning response of the border mussels (0.2 cm/d). Intermediate-sized patches (<3.0 M2) are eventually obliterated by lateral movement of the peripheral mussels: estimates based on 94 experimental patches yield a mean shrinking rate of 0.05 cm/d from each of two principal dimensions. Depth of the adjacent mussel bed accounts for much of the local variation in closing rate. In very large patches, mussels must recruit as larvae from the plankton. Recovery begins at an average patch age of 26 mo; rate of space occupation, primarily due to individual growth, is 2.0- 2.5%/mo. Winter birth rates suggest a mean turnover time (rotation period) for mussel beds varying from 8.1-34.7 yr, depending on the location. The minimal value is in close agreement with both observed and calculated minimal recovery times. Projections of total patch area, based on the model, are accurate to within 5% of that observed. Using a method for determining the age of patches, based on a growth curve of the barnacle Balanus cariosus, the model permits predictions of the age-size structure of the patch population. The model predicts with excellent resolution the distribution of patch area in relation to time since last distur- bance. The most detailed models which include size structure within age categories are inconclusive due to small sample size. Predictions are good for large patches, the major determinants of environ- mental patterns, but cannot deal adequately with smaller patches because of stochastic effects. Colonization data are given in relation to patch age, size and intertidal position. We suggest that the reproductive season of certain long-lived, patch-dependent species is moulded by the disturbance regime. The necessary and vital connection between disturbance which generates spatial pattern and species richness in communities open to invasion is discussed."
533	Hill1973.pdf	"Hill, M. 1973. Diversity and evenness: a unigying notation and its consequences. Ecology 54:427-432"	6	"Three commonly used measures of diversity, Simpson's index, Shannon's entropy, and the total number of species, are related to Renyi's definition of a generalized entropy. A unified concept of diversity is presented, according to which there is a continuum of possible diversity measures. In a sense which becomes apparent, these measures provide estimates of the effective number of species present, and differ only in their tendency to include or to ignore the relatively rarer species. The notion of the diversity of a community as opposed to that of a sample is examined, and is related to the asymptotic form of the species�abundance curve. A new and plausible definition of evenness is derived."
534	Werner1974.pdf	"Werner, E.E. & Hall D.J. 1974. Optimal foraging and size selection of prey by bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). Ecology 55:1042-1052"	11	"The bluegill sunfish, Lepomis macrochirus, is known to select prey on the basis of size. We present evidence that this size selection is related to the optimal allocation of time spent searching for, and handling prey. A model relating search and handling time to energy return is constructed to determine the optimal breadth of diet. Prey are permitted to differ in size and relative abundance. All elements of the model are estimated from experiments with the bluegill feeding on populations constructed from size classes of Daphnia magna. Relative visibility of the different prey sizes markedly affects relative encounter rates or ""effective"" proportions. Effective proportions are determined empirically from feeding experiments and theoretically from reaction distance in order to correct for this bias. Search time is then manipulated by varying absolute abundance of prey. At low absolute abundance, prey of different size are eaten as encountered. As prey abundance is increased, size classes are dropped sequentially from the diet in accordance with the theory. Search and handling times are estimated from these experiments and quantitative comparisons with the model indicate these changes in diet maximize return with respect to time spent foraging. See full-text article at JSTOR"
535	Krebs1995.pdf	"Krebs, C.J. et al. 1995. Impact of Food and Predation on the Snowshoe Hare Cycle. Science 269:1112-1115"	4	"Snowshoe hare populations in the boreal forests of North America go through 10-year cycles. Supplemental food and mammalian predator abundance were manipulated in a factorial design on 1-square-kilometer areas for 8 years in the Yukon. Two blocks of forest were fertilized to test for nutrient effects. Predator exclosure doubled and food addition tripled hare density during the cyclic peak and decline. Predator exclosure combined with food addition increased density 11-fold. Added nutrients increased plant growth but not hare density. Food and predation together had a more than additive effect, which suggests that a three-trophic-level interaction generates hare cycles."
536	Lima1998.pdf	"Lima, S.L. 1998. Nonlethal Effects in the Ecology of Predator-Prey Interactions: What are the ecological effects of anti-predator decision-making? BioScience  48:25-34"	10	No Abstract
537	Lebreton1992.pdf	"Lebreton, J-D. 1992. Modeling Survival and Testing Biological Hypotheses Using Marked Animals - A Unified Approach with Case Studies. Ecological Monographs 62:67-118"	52	" The understanding of the dynamics of animal populations and of related ecological and evolutionary issues frequently depends on a direct analysis of life history parameters. For instance, examination of trade-offs between reproduction and survival usually rely on individually marked animals, for which the exact time of death is most often unknown, because marked individuals cannot be followed closely through time. Thus, the quantitative analysis of survival studies and experiments must be based on capture- recapture (or resighting) models which consider, besides the parameters of primary interest, recapture or resighting rates that are nuisance parameters. Capture-recapture models oriented to estimation of survival rates are the result of a recent change in emphasis from earlier approaches in which population size was the most important parameter, survival rates having been first introduced as nuisance parameters. This emphasis on survival rates in capture-recapture models developed rapidly in the 1980s and used as a basic structure the Cormack-Jolly-Seber survival model applied to an homogeneous group of animals, with various kinds of constraints on the model parameters. These approaches are conditional on first captures; hence they do not attempt to model the initial capture of unmarked animals as functions of population abundance in addition to survival and capture probabilities. This paper synthesizes, using a common framework, these recent developments together with new ones, with an emphasis on flexibility in modeling, model selection, and the analysis of multiple data sets. The effects on survival and capture rates of time, age, and categorical variables characterizing the individuals (e.g., sex) can be considered, as well as interactions between such effects. This ""analysis of variance"" philosophy emphasizes the structure of the survival and capture process rather than the technical characteristics of any particular model. The flexible array of models encompassed in this synthesis uses a common notation. As a result of the great level of flexibility and relevance achieved, the focus is changed from fitting a particular model to model building and model selection. The following procedure is recommended: (1) start from a global model compatible with the biology of the species studied and with the design of the study, and assess its fit; (2) select a more parsimonious model using Akaike's Information Criterion to limit the number of formal tests; (3) test for the most important biological questions by comparing this model with neighboring ones using likelihood ratio tests; and (4) obtain maximum likelihood estimates of model parameters with estimates of precision. Computer software is critical, as few of the models now available have parameter estimators that are in closed form. A comprehensive table of existing computer software is provided. We used RELEASE for data summary and goodness-of-fit tests and SURGE for iterative model fitting and the computation of likelihood ratio tests. Five increasingly complex examples are given to illustrate the theory. The first, using two data sets on the European Dipper (Cinclus cinclus), tests for sex-specific parameters, explores a model with time-dependent survival rates, and finally uses a priori information to model survival allowing for an environmental variable. The second uses data on two colonies of the Swift (Apus apus), and shows how interaction terms can be modeled and assessed and how survival and recapture rates sometimes partly counterbalance each other. The third shows complex variation in survival rates across sexes and age classes in the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), with a test of density dependence in annual survival rates. The fourth is an example of experimental density manipulation using the common lizard (La- certa vivipara). The last example attempts to examine a large and complex data set on the Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), where parameters are age specific, survival is a function of an environmental variable, and an age x year interaction term is important. Heterogeneity seems present in this example and cannot be adequately modeled with existing theory. The discussion presents a summary of the paradigm we recommend and details issues in model selection and design, and foreseeable future developments."
538	Schmitz1997.pdf	"Schmitz, O.J. et al. 1997. Behaviorally mediated trophic cascades : effects of predation risk on food web. Ecology 78:1388�1399"	12	"Trophic cascades are regarded as important signals for top-down control of food web dynamics. Although there is clear evidence supporting the existence of trophic cascades, the mechanisms driving this important dynamic are less clear. Trophic cascades could arise through direct population-level effects, in which predators prey on herbivores, thereby decreasing the abundance of herbivores that impact plant trophic levels. Trophic cascades could also arise through indirect behavioral-level effects, in which herbivore prey shift their foraging behavior in response to predation risk. Such behavioral shifts can result in reduced feeding time and increased starvation risk, again lowering the impact of herbivores on plants. We evaluated the relative importance of these two mechanisms, using field experiments in an old-field system composed of herbaceous plants, grasshopper herbivores, and spider predators. We created two treatments, Risk spiders that had their chelicerae glued, and Predation spiders that remained unmanipulated. We then systematically evaluated the impacts of these predator manipulations at behavioral, population, and food web scales in experimental mesocosms. At the behavioral level, grasshoppers did not distinguish between Risk spiders and Predation spiders. Grasshoppers exhibited significant shifts in feeding-time budget in the presence of spiders vs. when alone. At the grasshopper population level, Risk spider and Predation spider treatments caused the same level of grasshopper mortality, which was significantly higher than mortality in a control without spiders, indicating that the predation effects were compensatory to risk effects. At the food web level, Risk spider and Predation spider treatments decreased the impact grasshoppers had on grass biomass, supporting the existence of a trophic cascade. Moreover, Risk spider and Predation spider treatments produced statistically similar effects, again indicating that predation effects on trophic dynamics were compensatory to risk effects. We conclude that indirect effects resulting from antipredator behavior can produce trophic-level effects that are similar in form and strength to those generated by direct predation events."
539	Barnosky2012.pdf	"Barnosky, A.D. et al. 2012. Approaching a state shift in Earth's biosphere. Nature 486:52-58"	7	"Localized ecological systems are known to shift abruptly and irreversibly from one state to another when they are forced across critical thresholds. Here we review evidence that the global ecosystem as a whole can react in the same way and is approaching a planetary-scale critical transition as a result of human influence. The plausibility of a planetary-scale 'tipping point' highlights the need to improve biological forecasting by detecting early warning signs of critical transitions on global as well as local scales, and by detecting feedbacks that promote such transitions. It is also necessary to address root causes of how humans are forcing biological changes."
540	Laurance2002.pdf	"Laurance, W.F. et al. 2002. Ecosystem decay of amazonian forest fragments : a 22 year investigation. Conservation biology 16:605-618"	14	"We synthesized key findings from the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project, the world's largest and longest-running experimental study of habitat fragmentation. Although initially designed to assess the influence of fragment area on Amazonian biotas, the project has yielded insights that go far beyond the original scope of the study. Results suggest that edge effects play a key role in fragment dynamics, that the matrix has a major influence on fragment connectivity and functioning, and that many Amazonian species avoid even small (<100-m-wide) clearings. The effects of fragmentation are highly eclectic, altering species richness and abundances, species invasions, forest dynamics, the trophic structure of communities, and a variety of ecological and ecosystem processes. Moreover, forest fragmentation appears to interact synergistically with ecological changes such as hunting, fires, and logging, collectively posing an even greater threat to the rainforest biota."
541	Mace2014.pdf	"Mace, G.M. 2014. Whose conversation? Science 345:1558-1560"	3	"Conservation biology is a missiondriven discipline and is therefore subject to both drift and the periodic adoption of fads and fashions. Although many basic conservation principles, conservation organizations, and initiatives of global reach and impact have persisted almost unchanged for decades, the framing and purpose of conservation have shifted. These shifts mainly relate to how the relationships between people and nature are viewed, with consequences for the science underpinning conservation."
542	Pickett2002.pdf	"Pickett, S.T.A. & Cadenasso, M.L. 2002. The ecosystem as a multidimensional concept : meaning, model and metaphor. Ecosystems 5:1-10"	10	"The ecosystem is a fundamental ecological concept that is not as simple as it first appears. We explore three key dimensions of the concept that make it both complex and broadly useful�its basic defini- tion, its application via models to concrete or spe- cific situations, and its metaphorical connotations as used in general communication within the do- main of science and with the public at large. Clarity in identifying what the dimensions are and how they are related can help to maintain the rigor of the concept for specific scientific uses while also allowing enough flexibility for its use in the inte- gration of scientific principles, as well as in public discourse. This analysis of the ecosystem as a mul- tidimensional concept is likely to be generalizable to other important concepts in ecology"
543	Schoener1976.pdf	"Schoener, T.W. 1976. Alternatives to Lotka-Volterra competition: models of intermediate complexity. Theoretical Population Biology 10:309-333"	25	"A family of one-level differential-equation competition models in which two populations are limited by the energy flowing into the system generates the following results. For competitors on the same and only resource: 1) Purely exploitative competition leads to exclusion; which species wins depends on relative abilities to appropriate and extract energy from the resource, and the relative death and maintenance rates. 2) If conspecific interference (e.g., deaths or energy loss from fighting, cannibalism, or display) is sufficiently high relative to abilities to exploit the common resource, competition for the same resource can lead to coexistence. 3) If heterospecific interference is sufficiently high relative to abilities to exploit the common resource, competition for the same resource can lead to a priority effect, in which the outcome depends on initial population sizes. 4) Depending on whether situation (2) or (3) prevails, an increase in the amount of the common resource can convert an outcome in which one species always wins into one giving coexistence (2) or a priority effect (3). 5) If species are similar to one another in their abilities to appropriate and extract energy from the common resource and show reciprocity in intererence costs, competition can have multiple outcomes; either one species wins or the species coexist, depending on initial values. For competition on the same resource, but with each species monopolizing an exclusive resource as well: 1) Purely exploitative competition always leads to a unique point coexistence. 2) If interference is added to the system described in (1), two points of coexistence, separated by a saddle (an �unstable equilibrium�) are possible. This is favored by a) a small yield from the exclusive resources relative to the common one; and b) strong interspecific relative to intraspecific interference."
544	Southwood1961.pdf	"Southwood, T.R.E. 1961. The number of insect species associated with various trees. Journal of Animal Ecology 30:1�8"	8	"1. The hypothesis is suggested that the number of insect species associated with a tree is a reflection of the cumulative abundance of that tree in the particular country throughout recent geological history (e.g. in the Quaternary period). This means that the dominant native trees will have most insect species, and recently introduced ones fewest. 2. General comparisons between the insect fauna of certain trees in Britain, Sweden, Russia and Cyprus support the hypothesis. 3. A more detailed test is made for Britain, where it is shown that the number of species of the major plant feeding orders of insects (Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and most groups of Hemiptera) associated with British trees is closely correlated with the number of records of their Quaternary remains recorded by Godwin (1956). 4. Using such data it is possible to eliminate the effect the history (cumulative abundance) of the tree on the number of insect species, when it is seen that some trees are evidently especially resistant or unsusceptible to insect colonization, and others probably the reverse."
545	Tilman1996a.pdf	"Tilman, D. 1996. Biodiversity: Population versus ecosystem stability. Ecology 77:350-363"	14	"The relationships between biodiversity and stability were determined for both population and ecosystem traits in a long-term study of 207 grassland plots. Results demonstrate that biodiversity stabilizes community and ecosystem processes, but not population processes. Specifically, year-to-year variability in total aboveground plant community biomass was significantly lower in plots with greater plant species richness both for the entire 11-yr period and for the nine non-drought years. The change in total plant community biomass from before the drought to the peak of the drought was also highly dependent on species richness. For all three measures of total community biomass stability, multiple regressions that controlled for covariates showed similar significant relationships between plant diversity and stability. In contrast, year-to-year variability in species abundances was not stabilized by plant species richness for either all years or non-drought years. This difference between species vs. community biomass likely results from interspecific competition. When climatic variations harm some species, unharmed competitors increase. Such compensatory increases stabilize total community biomass, but cause species abundances to be more variable. These results support both the predictions of Robert May concerning the effects of diversity on population stability and the diversity-stability hypothesis as applied to community and ecosystem processes, thus helping to reconcile a long-standing dispute."
546	Naeem2002.pdf	"Naeem, S. 2002. Ecosystem consequences of biodiversity loss: The evolution of a paradigm. Ecology 83:1537-1552"	16	"The ecosystem consequences of dramatic declines or changes in biodiversity have spurred considerable research and tremendous debate that has rekindled most of the major conflicts in ecology, creating a sense of d�j� vu. These conflicts include whether ecosystem or community ecology provides better insights into the workings of nature, the relative importance of biotic vs. abiotic factors in governing community composition and structure, the virtues of phenomenological vs. mechanistic research, the relationship between biodiversity and stability, the relative importance of taxonomic vs. functional diversity, and the relative strengths of observation vs. experimental approaches. Although the tone of the debate has been regrettable, its magnitude signifies the emergence of a new paradigm, one in a series of debates associated with the dialectic that has structured ecological inquiry over two millennia of Western science. This dialectic concerns the tension between those who seek to explain nature by studying its parts and those who seek to explain nature by studying whole-system behavior. Philosophers and historians argue that such a dialectic generates cycles in which a central tenet is challenged by an emerging paradigm, generating new theories and new data to test the emerging paradigm. The scientific community evaluates the accumulating evidence (and it is here that the debates arise), and if subscription to the emerging paradigm increases sufficiently, the emerging paradigm evolves into a new central tenet. Fractionation within the sciences exacerbates this cycle because subdisciplines often focus on either the parts or the whole. Such splintering can be traced to the abandonment of the holistic approach of Aristotelian science during the Scientific Revolution. While such holism may have lessened debate, some have argued that it stagnated Western science. The dialectic, the cycles of emerging paradigms it generates, and the debates that surround each emergence represent the vehicle by which ecology moves forward. Emerging paradigms force scientists to revisit central tenets, pitting old ideas against new theories and new data, and this revisiting is what generates the sense of d�j� vu and the cycles of vigorous debate, but ultimately each cycle leads to synthesis and progress. The emerging paradigm that biodiversity governs ecosystem function is rapidly evolving. In the words of Thomas Kuhn, its controversial experiments have successfully articulated the paradigm. It has successfully challenged ecology's central tenet that biodiversity is primarily an epiphenomenon of ecosystem function secondarily structured by community processes. In its most extreme form, it claims that the reverse is true. Of course, neither the central tenet of ecology nor the emerging paradigm is correct in an absolute sense, but the dialectic that promoted the emergence of biodiversity and ecosystem function as a paradigm redirected ecology to focus on the feedback between ecosystem function and biodiversity rather than studying them independently. The final stage in the evolution of this emerging paradigm will be explicit tests of synthetic mechanisms that have been proposed. Familiarity with the ecological dialectic provides a framework by which ecologists can understand the origin and utility of paradigms in ecology, provides a proper context for the debate that surrounds paradigms as they emerge, promotes synthesis, and deters intellectual chauvinism that may inadvertently accompany specialization within ecology."